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Turnpike Acts – The trusts were not-for-profit and maximum tolls were set. The ‘turnpike’ was the gate which blocked the road until the toll was paid. The first such Act, of 1663, turnpiked the Great North Road between Wadesmill in Hertfordshire and Stilton in Huntingdonshire.

Brigg – a natural promontory into the sea or bridge.

An abutment is the substructure at the ends of a bridge span or dam supporting its superstructure. Single-span bridges have abutments at each end that provide vertical and lateral support for the span, as well as acting as retaining walls to resist lateral movement of the earthen fill of the bridge approach.

An orthostat is a large, slab-like stone that is set upright, often used in ancient architecture. They are commonly found in walls, particularly in the lower portions of structures like chamber tombs and temples, and can be carved with decorative reliefs. orthostats are also used in megalithic structures like Stonehenge.

Packhorses are horses (or sometimes mules, donkeys, or ponies) used to carry goods on their backs, typically in side-bags or panniers. They are often used in areas where roads are poor or non-existent, or in situations where wheeled vehicles are impractical. Packhorses have been used for transportation since the Neolithic period and continue to be …

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Spates, or temporary flood events in rivers, are not typically classified into distinct types like other geological features. Instead, they are characterized by their intensity, duration, and source. Spates can be described by factors like the amount of sediment they carry, the type of diversion structures used for water harvesting, or the impact on the …

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A spate flow, often referred to as a “Spate,” is a sudden, rapid increase in the amount of water flowing in a river or stream, typically due to a short-duration flood. This increase in flow can be caused by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or other events that quickly add a large volume of water to the …

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Limestone pavements are geological landscapes characterized by exposed, flat slabs of Limestone separated by deep fissures, known as grykes. They are formed by the dissolution of limestone rock over millions of years by water, creating a “paving stone” effect. The flat slabs between the grykes are called clints.  Where these occur in river beds, natural …

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Limestone is a hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate or dolomite, used as building material and in the making of cement. It is a source of lime (calcium oxide), which is used in steel manufacturing, mining, paper production, water treatment and purification, and plastic production. Lime also has major applications in the manufacture …

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Gritstone or Grit is a hard, coarse-grained, siliceous sandstone. This term is especially applied to such sandstones that are quarried for building material.