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Archaeological Periods in Western Europe: An Overview
Understanding the archaeological periods across Western Europe is essential for exploring the evolution of human societies from prehistory to the beginnings of written history. These periods are generally defined by shifts in technology, social organization, and the environment, and they often vary slightly from region to region. In this section, we’ll explore the broad archaeological periods across the British Isles and mainland Europe, focusing on significant differences between regions like Britain, Ireland, Spain, France, Portugal, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy.
The Prehistoric Periods (Before 3000 BCE)
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
- Britain and Ireland: The Palaeolithic is the earliest period of prehistory, spanning from the first appearance of humans in Europe around 1 million years ago to about 10,000 BCE. In the British Isles, the period is known for hunter-gatherers, such as the Neanderthals (who lived in Britain during the Middle Palaeolithic) and the later modern humans (Homo sapiens) during the Upper Palaeolithic. Evidence includes flint tools and cave art like the Creswell Crags in England.
- Mainland Europe: Similarly, the Palaeolithic period in Spain and France is marked by Neanderthal and early human presence, with notable sites like Altamira in Spain (famous for its cave paintings) and Chauvet Cave in France.
- Spain, France, and Portugal: The Iberian Peninsula is particularly rich in prehistoric art and evidence of early human settlements, including Neanderthal habitation in caves and the development of Mousterian tools.
- Italy: Italy’s Palaeolithic sites show evidence of Homo sapiens arriving, with notable sites like Grotta del Cavallo. Some of the most famous Palaeolithic art is also found in the caves of southern France and northern Spain.
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) (c. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE)
- Britain and Ireland: After the last Ice Age, around 10,000 BCE, Mesolithic people began to adapt to a warming climate. This period is known for the transition from big-game hunting to fishing and gathering. In Britain, barbed fishing hooks, microliths, and settlement sites such as Star Carr in North Yorkshire provide evidence of early human life.
- Mainland Europe: The Mesolithic in France, Spain, and Italy shows similar patterns of hunter-gatherer societies transitioning to semi-sedentary lifestyles, with evidence of settlements and early agriculture. Switzerland and Austria have lake dwellings (known as palafittes) dating from this time.
- Portugal and Spain: Along the coastlines, Mesolithic communities are recognized for their maritime exploitation, using shellfish beds and coastal resources. Cave sites in Spain and Portugal provide rich evidence of this period.
Neolithic (New Stone Age) (c. 6,000 BCE – 2,000 BCE)
Introduction of Agriculture and Settlements
- Britain and Ireland: The Neolithic in the British Isles marks a significant shift from hunter-gathering to agriculture. Around 4000 BCE, people began to farm and build permanent settlements, with evidence from sites like Skara Brae in Orkney and Newgrange in Ireland. This period is also noted for megalithic structures and rituals.
- Mainland Europe: The Neolithic began earlier in mainland Europe, especially in regions like France, Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula. In Spain, agriculture and pottery appeared around 5,500 BCE, and megalithic tombs such as those in Andalusia indicate a shared cultural tradition with the British Isles. Italy is known for its early agricultural settlements, while Switzerland has preserved lake settlements.
- Portugal and Spain: The Iberian Peninsula saw the rise of farming villages and circular dwellings, while Portugal and the north of Spain show evidence of early pottery and stone structures.
- Italy: Italy was an early adopter of farming, with evidence of the first agricultural practices dating back to around 6,000 BCE. Megalithic tombs and early pottery are found in central and southern Italy, and the Neolithic period sees the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture in the east.
The Bronze Age (c. 2,000 BCE – 700 BCE)
Emergence of Metallurgy and Complex Societies
- Britain and Ireland: The Bronze Age in Britain saw the arrival of metalworking and the development of early chieftain societies. Wheeled vehicles, bronze tools, and barrow burials characterize this period, with prominent sites like Stonehenge and Avebury in England, and Newgrange in Ireland, now seen as important ritual centres.
- Mainland Europe: In countries like France, Italy, and Spain, the Bronze Age marks the rise of metallurgy. The introduction of bronze tools and weapons, along with an increasing shift towards urbanization, are key trends. Switzerland is famous for its lake dwellings, and the Hallstatt culture (found in Austria and surrounding regions) is a hallmark of this period.
- Portugal and Spain: The Iberian Peninsula was marked by the development of bronze working in coastal regions, with significant evidence of trade and burial customs. Portugal and northern Spain were influenced by Celtic migrations toward the end of the Bronze Age.
- Italy: Italy’s Bronze Age was marked by the rise of the Apennine culture, which was characterized by bronze tool usage and burial mounds. The influence of the Mediterranean was evident, especially in coastal cities like Rome, which was in its early formative stages.
The Iron Age (c. 700 BCE – 43 CE)
The Rise of Complex Societies and Iron Technology
- Britain and Ireland: The Iron Age in the British Isles is marked by the dominance of Celtic culture, with people living in hillforts and tribal societies. Druidic beliefs, warrior cultures, and advanced metallurgy flourished, setting the stage for the Roman conquest.
- Mainland Europe: The Celtic culture spread widely across Europe, especially in France, Spain, and Italy, where the Celts interacted with local cultures and developed their own distinct identities. The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures represent two major phases of the Celtic Iron Age in Europe.
- Portugal and Spain: The Iberian Peninsula saw the Celtic influence from the Hallstatt culture, particularly in Galicia and northern Spain, where the Celtic tribes interacted with the Iberians. The Celtiberians were a mix of Celtic and Iberian peoples.
- Italy: The Etruscan civilization in Italy thrived during the Iron Age and played a major role in the development of Rome, influencing Roman culture and urban planning. Celtic tribes in northern Italy also interacted with local cultures.
Conclusion:
Western Europe’s archaeological periods span from the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) to the Iron Age, marking the evolution of human societies, technologies, and cultures. Each region—Britain, Ireland, and mainland Europe—shares certain trends, such as the rise of agriculture, metalworking, and complex societies, yet each has its own unique historical timeline and cultural identity. Galicia, with its Celtic roots, sits at the crossroads of these larger trends, showing both connections to Iberian and Celtic cultures, offering exciting possibilities for understanding the Brigantes and their relationship to this broader cultural context.
3 comments
Hello George,
Regards the picture with Stone Henge in the background, I didnt realise the Iron age Celts used Bedford farm trucks as shown!
Cheers
Author
Hi Simon, Did you find this fun image a barrier to reading the Guide? Was it a complete distraction for you, rendering you unable to carry on?
Author
What I mean is, you are supposed to see the metaphor, if you understand the intention of this course. It stops wasting time. You spotted the incongruence, but could it be entirely intentional? Might there be a hidden truth in this image that a mind not willing to challenge itself will not be able to see, and so remain in the superficiality of taking first impressions as the indication of the final result?