Sep 24

Celtic Customs

Celtic burial’s

An interesting legacy of Celtic culture is the custom of burying the dead in barrows surrounded by a square ditch. This was a uniquely British phenomenon. One aspect of this that is highly significant and which inspired a great deal of excitement among scholars of Iron Age Britain, was the discovery of the so-called chariot burials. Wagon graves have their first appearance in Europe in the middle 7th century BC, where warrior chieftains were buried along with sides of beef and pork, horse bits and earthen vessels. It was a ritual imported from the Etruscans and the oldest such burials connected with the Celts have been identified from Bohemia, Austria and Bavaria. Some of the more detailed evidence of Iron Age influence in Yorkshire comes from the eastern part of the region, along the southern fringes of the moors and again in the Wolds, where evidence of settlements from this period has been identified near Wetwang. That region abounds with square barrows suggests a strong spiritual element to their culture. These features are peculiar to the La Tène Celts and were apparently alien to the neighbouring Brigantes – further evidence of strong division between the two groups. The Brigantes as we shall soon see, pursued their own overtly gruesome customs.

Chariot burials

The excavations at Wetwang Slack, some four miles west of Wetwang, and at another site at Garton Slack near Great Driffield, gave archaeologists a further insight into Iron Age cultures in the county and also provided many surprises. At these two locations, the Wetwang Slack one in particular, it was obvious from the extensive linear earthworks and barrow cemeteries, that here was a major settlement of the Parisii. As recently as 1984, three chariot burials, similar to those found elsewhere in Europe, were revealed by excavations in nearby gravel pits. Archaeologists believed that the earlier finds revealed nothing more fanciful than farm carts, yet the subsequent discovery of grave goods with oblivious military connotations finally dispelled any doubts. In each of the Wold burials, the chariot had been dismantled and the wheels and iron tyres placed beneath the carriage. Two of the barrows were obviously the graves of important warriors, for the deceased had been buried in a crouched position alongside fine weapons and ornate shields. Exciting as these discoveries obviously were, the third barrow was even more remarkable. This contained the body of a woman who had been laid to rest together with the riches of her station. She was well provided for the afterlife. A side of pork had been placed beside her, together with a mirror, a bronze box, horse bits also of bronze and several pins. It was obvious that here the barrow of some woman of noble lineage had been unearthed. Close to Stanwick, in North East Lower Langdale, further Chariot burials were discovered by MacLauchlan in 1844.

Many of Yorkshire’s fine museum artefacts reflect life, and death in the Iron Age. The remains from these chariot graves can be seen on display at the Hull and East Riding Museum in Hull, where the Celtic World exhibit brings to life the La Tène culture of the Yorkshire Wolds. It is tempting to contemplate the ritual, which must surely have accompanied the ceremonies accompanying these burials. Other exhibits include some fine Romano-British mosaics

Celtic Headhunters

Their overt savagery even appalled the Romans, who were certainly no angels. The Celts were head-hunters and, according to Diodorus, warriors hewed the heads of fallen enemies and hung them from their horses’ manes, later to be preserved and displayed on the walls of their huts. More about this preoccupation with heads later. Some northern Celts, including those inhabiting Caledonia, tattooed their bodies or decked them out in blue pigment before engaging in battle. It was said to make them fearsome in appearance, and thus they became known as the Pictii, from which the name Pict is derived.

Sep 24

Celtic Industry

 Introduction

To look upon the tribes of Britain as just a bunch of savages is totally erroneous. Each tribe had thriving industries based on manufactured goods. Whether these goods were made in the homes of individual families, or in group workshops. The products of Celtic craftspeople were just as stunning as any Roman artefact.

Not all crafts were suitable to be carried out at home, so the more adventurous artefacts such as gold jewellery and metalwork were left to workshops equipped for such ventures. In the home, cloth was woven into various items and styles which could be sold on to traders, or directly to customers.

Woollen garments

The Celts kept sheep and goats for their hair and also food. What we do know about the woollen garments, is that they were highly sought after by the Romans. Owners of such items were considered to be in the height of fashion.

The sheep had their wool removed by natives using Iron Age knives and, later, crude shears.

The wool was then transported to a home or workshop, where it was combed with plucking combs made from bone to turn this tangled mess into a form that made spinning and shaping the wool easier and to remove any loose deposits of soil etc. that may have contaminated the wool.

It was then cleaned and combed a second time, which made it soft and easy to weave. Then it was spun on a basic hand spindle.

After this, it was dyed using a vegetable-based mixture. As the Celts did not record the actual methods or constituents of the dying process, we can only guess at the ingredients and methods used. The same applies to the equipment they used. The spinning equipment was probably made from wood, and as such, any spinning weaves buried overtime and unearthed today would have perished beyond recognition. The combs they used have survived. Being made from bone, they endured the passage of time better than wooden implements.

Leather working

The procedure of making garments consisting partly or wholly of leather was one that could be undertaken as a home industry, if the craftsman was willing to take on a difficult and exacting process. Once the animal had been slaughtered, the stages involved from skinning to the finished product required a significant amount of skill and stamina.

The first step was skinning, whereby the hide was removed using large, highly sharpened knives and a knowledge of how to remove as large an area of skin in one piece as possible.

Next was the tanning process. Here the hide was prepared for shaping by immersing it in a vat or a pit filled with a soaking solution made from oak bark or galls. This caused the layers of fat on and in the hide to float off and rise to the surface, where it was skimmed off. Even these deposits of fat were used to in lamps for everyday lighting.

Then the leather was dried before the actual cutting, shaping and sowing happened. It was here the craftsmen would really come into their own. We have no knowledge of how the Celts knew the shape and size to make the garments, whether they used patterns, or used their own skill and experience. We do know they used knives to cut the hide and needles made from bone to sew the panels together. This is clear from the finds made, especially in the south-east of England.

Carpentry

Throughout time, the work of the carpenter has been fundamental to any society. In pre-Roman times, the woodworker was an essential part of any homestead. Homes, furniture, implements etc. used wood in their construction somewhere along the line.

The tools they used were similar to the ones used today, except they ran on people power rather than electricity. It was not just the skill of the craftsmen that was essential in word working. They also had to know the characteristics of each type of wood, how it could be used and its limitations.

Chariots

The Ancient Celts were known for their war chariots, which played a significant role in their martial culture. While the Celts did not invent the chariot, they adopted and adapted this technology to suit their needs. The chariot’s origins can be traced back to around 1700 BC, where the Hurrians of northern Syria transformed the four-wheeled Mesopotamian war-wagon into a lighter, two-wheeled vehicle.

The Celts likely encountered the chariot as they spread across Europe, and by the 2nd century BC, they had become proficient in its use for warfare. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Celtic elite were buried with their chariots, indicating the high status of these vehicles. These chariots were typically light and fast, consisting of a platform with a waist-high guard at the front and sides, drawn by two horses.

The construction of these chariots would have required skilled craftsmanship, particularly in woodworking and metalworking, to create the wheels, frame, and fittings necessary for a sturdy yet swift war machine. The chariots would have been assembled using iron-rimmed wheels with spokes, a technology that provided strength and speed. The Celts’ use of chariots in battle was documented by ancient writers, who noted their effectiveness in combat. The chariots allowed for rapid movement across the battlefield, and the Celtic warriors were known for their ability to hurl spears and engage in close combat from these moving platforms. The creation of Celtic chariots was thus a sophisticated process that combined existing technologies with the Celts’ unique requirements for warfare.

Building structures

The Ancient Celts employed a distinctive approach to constructing their dwellings, which were perfectly adapted to their needs and the resources available in their environment. The quintessential structure was the roundhouse, a testament to their ingenuity. The construction process began with laying a circular foundation using wooden posts, which provided the structural support for the walls and roof. These posts were placed at regular intervals, creating a sturdy base for the subsequent layers.

The roofing poles, long and straight, were tied together at the top and fanned out to rest on each of the foundation posts. This radial layout was not only structurally sound but also allowed for an even distribution of weight and a spacious interior. The roof was then covered with thatch, typically made from locally sourced reeds or straw, providing excellent insulation and waterproofing.

For the walls, the Celts used a technique called wattle and daub. Wattle involved weaving sticks together to form a lattice, which was then covered with daub—a mixture of materials like clay, soil, and straw. This combination was not only effective in keeping out the cold, but also allowed the buildings to breathe, maintaining a comfortable living environment.

The interior of a Celtic house was practical and focused on the essentials. A central fire pit provided warmth and a place for cooking, while beds and seating were constructed from available materials. The Celts also paid attention to the drainage around their homes, often digging trenches to direct rainwater away from the structure, ensuring the longevity of their houses.

These ancient building techniques reflect a profound understanding of their environment and a sustainable approach to living. The Celts’ houses were more than just shelters; they were homes built with skill and care, reflecting the values and lifestyle of their inhabitants. Their legacy in architecture is still evident today in the remnants of their roundhouses and the archaeological insights they provide into Celtic life. The methods they used, while ancient, are a testament to their sophisticated understanding of construction and their ability to create enduring structures with the materials at hand.

In addition to their iconic roundhouses, the Ancient Celts were adept at constructing various other structures that were integral to their way of life. One of the most notable were the hill forts, which were primarily used for defensive purposes. These forts were often situated on elevated ground, providing a strategic advantage over the surrounding landscape. The construction of these forts involved large earthworks, with walls built from stone or wood, and they often encompassed a complex of roundhouses within their boundaries.

The Celts also built burial monuments, which varied in form from simple cists covered with cairns to elaborate passage tombs. These structures were not only places of interment but also served as ceremonial sites where various rites and rituals were performed. The construction of these monuments required an in-depth understanding of stonework, and often featured intricate carvings and alignments with astronomical events.

In their settlements, the Celts constructed communal buildings such as feasting halls and workshops. These larger structures were central to the social and economic life of the community, serving as places for gathering, celebration, and trade. The design of these buildings was practical, focusing on the interior space needed to accommodate large groups of people and the activities that took place within.

Defensive walls, both around settlements and as standalone structures, were another aspect of Celtic construction. These walls, known as ramparts, were made from earth, stone, or a combination of both, and were designed to protect against invasions and raids. The techniques used in building these fortifications were advanced for their time, demonstrating the Celts’ skill in engineering and construction.

The Celts’ architectural legacy is evident not only in the physical remnants of their structures but also in the cultural impact they have had on subsequent generations. Their buildings were constructed with a profound respect for the landscape and resources, and their techniques have been studied and admired for their sustainability and harmony with nature.

Metalworking

Unlike the crafts mentioned above, metalworking meant the base material had to be manufactured before it could be shaped. This was one craft that could not be carried out at home and was mostly performed by a team of craftsmen in a central location. It should be noted that the actual blacksmith was not usually performed as a home business, but the creating of the base iron in a furnace was carried out in many homes.

The main metal was, of course, iron. The minerals used to manufacture iron had to be extracted from mines, then transported to a smelting plant before being passed to the metalworkers. Iron was the main constituent for tools and everyday items, but bronze was also used. Silver and gold were reserved for ornate items of jewellery worn by the upper classes. Silver was used for items such as tableware by the nobility, whereas gold, from the mines in Wales, was primarily a metal used for decorative artefacts

The basic constituents of iron were charcoal and iron ore. These were powdered, mixed and placed in a shelf in a small furnace. A fire was lit underneath, and this would have been tended for a day.

During this time, bellows were used to pass air into the furnace from below and out a chimney at the top. When the temperature inside reached 800 degrees Centigrade, a process of oxidization took place, which caused the slag to separate from the iron and run off the shelf to the bottom of the furnace.

Once the furnace had cooled, the iron looked like a hard sponge about the size of a human hand. This was then repeatedly heated and beaten until the remainder of the impurities had been removed.

The finished iron blocks were passed to the blacksmith, who manufactured them into tools and weapons for the tribe.

Jewellery

The creation of Celtic jewellery was a complex process that involved various techniques and materials, showcasing the Celts’ deep connection with their culture and the natural world. The earliest known Celtic art, the Hallstatt style, emerged around the 12th to 8th century BC, characterized by geometric patterns and symmetrical designs executed primarily in metalwork. This period’s prosperity, based on salt mining, allowed for the development of impressive metallurgical skills.

As the Celts expanded across Europe, their art evolved into the La Tène style around 500 BC, marked by more sophisticated designs with intricate knotwork, spirals, and zoomorphic motifs. These designs often held spiritual significance, representing the Celts’ beliefs and their observations of nature and the cosmos. The La Tène period also saw the Celts’ craftsmanship flourish, with jewellery pieces becoming more elaborate, incorporating gold, silver, and precious stones to signify status and wealth.

The techniques used by Celtic artisans included filigree and granulation, creating delicate and ornate items that reflected the richness of their culture. Filigree involved twisting thin wires of metal and soldering them onto the surface of an object to form intricate patterns, while granulation entailed the use of tiny beads of metal to create textured designs. These methods required a high level of precision and artistry, indicating the Celts’ advanced knowledge in metalworking.

Celtic jewellery often served multiple purposes: it was a symbol of protection, a sign of social status, and a means to express personal identity and beliefs. The use of various metals like gold, silver, and bronze, sometimes combined with enamel, allowed for a diverse range of colours and patterns, which were further enhanced by the Celts’ skill in hammering, casting, and engraving. The resulting artefacts, from torcs and brooches to bracelets and necklaces, were not only beautiful but also imbued with cultural and spiritual meanings.

The Ancient Celts utilized various materials to create their distinctive jewellery, reflecting the resources available to them and their advanced metallurgical skills. Metals such as gold, bronze, and silver were commonly used, prized for their durability and lustre. Gold, often hammered into thin sheets, was a favoured material for high-status items, adorned with intricate patterns through techniques like embossing and chasing, creating motifs such as zigzags, triangles, and diamond shapes. Bronze, known for its hardness and darker hue, was typically used for items like brooches and belt buckles, which required a robust material that could withstand frequent use.

In addition to these metals, the Celts also incorporated various precious and semi-precious stones into their jewellery, including amber, jet, and shale. Amber, with its warm, translucent glow, was often used as inlay or for beads, adding a touch of colour and light to the metalwork. Jet, a type of lignite with an intense black sheen, was highly valued for its reflective qualities and was carved into intricate shapes for adornment. Shale, another type of sedimentary rock, was also shaped and polished for use in jewellery, providing a smooth, dark surface that contrasted beautifully with the bright metalwork.

Enamelling was another technique employed by the Celts, where powdered glass was fused to the metal surface at high temperatures to create vibrant, colourful designs. This allowed for the addition of reds, blues, greens, and yellows to their jewellery, further enhancing the visual impact of their pieces. The use of enamel was particularly prominent in the La Tène period, where the artistic expression of the Celts reached new heights with more complex and abstract designs.

The craftsmanship of Celtic jewellery was not only about aesthetics but also function. Brooches, for instance, were not merely decorative; they served the practical purpose of fastening clothing. The design of these brooches often included a pin that was as much a work of art as the brooch itself, demonstrating the Celts’ ability to combine form and function seamlessly.

Weapons

Skilled Celtic smiths would forge weapons through a combination of techniques, including casting for intricate shapes and forge-welding, where multiple pieces of metal were hammered together at high temperatures to form a single piece. This method was particularly used for long swords, which were initially made of bronze and later of iron. The iron swords, although not as hard as steel, were effective due to their length and weight, allowing for powerful slashing attacks.

Swords and spears were the mainstay of Celtic warriors, and their construction was a reflection of the society’s values and technological prowess. The swords often featured elaborate decorations, with sheaths adorned in precious metals and intricate designs, signifying the status and wealth of the warrior. The Celts also developed different styles of warfare and weapons to suit these methods. For instance, in Spain, Celtic warriors became adept at close combat with shorter swords, while in southern Gaul, longer swords were preferred.

The quality of Celtic swords varied, with some being made of softer iron that could bend during battle, requiring the warrior to straighten them mid-fight. However, this depiction might have been exaggerated or misunderstood, as bent swords are often found in ritual deposits, suggesting a ceremonial purpose rather than a reflection of poor quality. The creation of these weapons was not just a matter of practicality but also of spiritual significance, with some weapons believed to be crafted by divine beings or imbued with mythical origins, adding to the mystique of the Celtic warrior culture.

Mining

They extracted these metals from the earth using primitive mining techniques that involved digging out shallow pits or following the veins of ore into the hillsides. The iron they produced was essential for making tools and weapons, which were used locally and traded with neighbouring tribes and even with the Romans after their arrival. Lead was used for plumbing and waterproofing, and its extraction was so extensive that the pollution from these ancient mines can still be detected in the peat bogs of the region today.

Sep 24

Celtic Economy

Introduction

Before the Roman’s entered Gaul, the Celtic tribes there were trading heavily among themselves and with related tribes in wider Europe, including Britain.

The northern tribes were known to be more basic than their counterparts in the south. This is because the tribes in the south, even more in the south-east, had been trading with the peoples on the continent for many years. There was a definite north-south divide in Britain. If you imagine a line from Bristol to Lincoln and on to the North Sea, then that is roughly the dividing line between the more sophisticated southern tribes and the simpler tribes of the north.

Trade with Gaul was not just tribe to tribe, it was also with Romans in the occupied lands and also with Italy. Goods such as clothing, woven baskets and hunting dogs were highly prized by the Romans, so Britain had a thriving trade in these items. At least in the first half of the first century B.C. This is evident by the existence of the ports of Hengistbury Head (Hampshire) and Mount Batten (Plymouth).

There was one aspect of the trade that annoyed the Gauls and hindered the development of trade routes and the variety and quantity of items. The British preferred to trade goods for goods rather than goods for currency. There may have been set prices for specific items, but the Britons would barter and haggle over the trading ‘prices’. In Europe, the tribes were trading with the Romans and so took Roman coins in exchange for their goods.

However, this was to change. The southern tribes began to realise that trading some goods for Roman currency meant they could use Roman coinage to buy imported Roman goods. So, as the Roman influence in Europe grew, the bartering system began to die out and was gradually replaced by a (goods) for currency system.

We know about the British exports to Gaul by archaeological finds of these artefacts in Europe. We also know of the imports to Britain from the finds of items such as graphite coated and wheel thrown pottery made in Gaul and dating from the period. Fine glassware made an appearance and was highly prized among the Celtic upper classes for its novelty value.

The coming of Rome

Around 50BC, the situation changed. As the Romans reached the northern coast of Gaul, they turned their attention inland to the tribes and the Venetii in particular. Caesar began to obliterate them from the land and destroy their homes as a punishment for the resistance they had given to the Roman advance.

There is conflicting information about trade during the latter half of the first century B.C. Export from Britain to the continent dropped almost to the point of cessation. But we do know that Italian wine was imported in large quantities using the standard Roman amphorae to transport it.

Maybe what actually happened was that the types of goods imported into and exported from Britain changed dramatically as merchants on both sides of the channel found different types of goods to trade and new outlets for these items. Among these new imports were tableware, bronze jugs oenochoe and silver goblets.

The downside to trading with Europe was the insistence of the Britons to barter goods for goods rather than goods for cash. Much of Europe had been overrun by the Romans, so trade between occupied tribal

Sep 24

Basics of Celtic Life

The basics of Celtic life

Introduction

The period before the Romans arrived in Britain is clouded by incomplete facts, conjecture and conflicting opinions. This is mainly due to the lack of recorded information available. The Celtic tribes of Britain did commit their history in written form as the Celtic language did not have any written form, only oral.

The structure of the tribes was based on a belief that everyone had to serve a practical purpose within the community. Their main concerns were feeding the tribe and defending their territory. So such luxuries as scribes and writers to record their heritage were unknown. Coupled with the inefficiency of their ways of working, in particular agriculture, most of the tribal members were put to work on the farms, rasing crops and tending the livestock.

They had yet to learn about the equipment and techniques of the Romans, who had developed methods of using land, people and tools more effectively.

The Aylesford-Swarling culture

Partly because of the development of trade in the south, the Catuvellauni, Trinovantes and Cantiaci became more advanced and civilised than their northern compatriots. As such, these tribes developed very similar societies, cultures, laws etc. For this reason, these tribes have been labelled the Aylesford-Swarling culture. This name refers to two cemeteries found in Kent in 1890 and 1921.

These tribes had extremely similar ways of life. Their social structure, politics and beliefs were very much the same. Even such aspects as their burial of tribes people in graves and cremation were common to these tribes. The artefacts they produced, especially wheel made pottery, were comparable in style and manufacture. These tribes became more closely aligned sometime between 54BC and 43AD when the Catuvellauni became dominant over the others by asserting their authority over the present leaders. The Atrebates also came underneath the influence of the Catuvellauni around the same period.

The Gallo-Belgic tribes

The Atrebates, Dobunni, Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes were of a similar society, in the same way the Aylesford-Swarling culture were to their tribes. The Belgae can be included in this list a tribe, but it is widely believed they were actually a subset of the Atrebates. The Parisi were also of Gallic origin, but as they occupied an area north of the Catuvellauni and Iceni, they cannot be considered part of this group of southern tribes.

These tribes developed similar lifestyles and artefacts in the same way the previously mentioned tribes had developed their cultures. The Atrebates had their origins in Gaul, but the others merely had Belgic traits akin to the Atrebates. Even so, the parallels between these tribes are too close to ignore. The territory occupied by the Atrebates changed over the years due to incursions by neighbouring tribes and mainly by the assertion of the Catuvellauni. Around 25BC, it appears the Catuvellauni took control of the Atrebates and actually took the Silchester area for their own people, possibly banishing the Atrebatian inhabitants to land outside this newly won region. We do know Calleva (Silchester) became a centre for the minting of coins depicting King Epaticus of the Catuvellauni.

One of the outstanding aspects of these tribes was their pottery, or rather ceramics. These were noted for the beaded rims, tall necks and wide mouths of their jars. Later in the first century A.D., these products were supplemented by copies of Gaulish beakers and cups.

 

Sep 24

Background – The Celts

The Celts

History

The Celts (Greek ‘Keltoi’) were an Indo-European people originating in the Alps. Their first known territory was in Central Europe around 1200 BC in the upper Danube, the Alps and parts of France and southern Germany. The Celtic culture spread from its heartland around the Rhine and Danube, reaching Spain and Portugal in the C6th BC and dominating central and Western Europe as well as Galatia in modern Turkey from the C5th BC onwards.

In the next three centuries, they also reached Britain, northern Italy, Greece, the Balkans and Asia Minor. From discoveries of Chinese silk and items of Greek and Italian workmanship in their burials, it is clear that the Celts had a wide network of commercial contacts. Their leaders lived in hill-forts and made many raids on the Mediterranean lands, attacking Rome in 390 BC. The Celtic Iron Age is generally divided into two periods, the Hallstadt (C9th to 5th BC) and La Tène (after 450 BC), named after archaeological sites in Austria and Switzerland. Their characteristic style of decoration, ‘Celtic Art’, spread throughout western and Central Europe, including the British Isles, where it was still being used by the time of the illuminated gospels in the early Middle Ages. They also produced iron, which gave them an advantage over those peoples who had only bronze weapons and tools.

Under the influences of both overcrowding (Milan was traditionally founded by the nephew of a Celtic king banished to alleviate this problem) and the rapid extension of the Roman Empire, migration continued. Control of Celtic lands, even the kingdom of Galatia, passed to the Romans as their Empire spread beyond Italy. The Celtic peoples became incorporated into it with the Mediterranean area of Gaul or Gallia (modern France), becoming a Roman province by the end of the C2nd BC. In Britain, the Belgae, a people of mixed Germanic and Celtic stock, became partially Romanized in the century between the first Roman invasion under Julius Caesar in 54 BC and the Roman conquest of AD 43.

They now mostly inhabit the Western seaboard of the British Isles, with traces of their languages remaining in Manx, Cornish, Breton and English as well as Scottish and Irish Gaelic and Welsh. They were recognised and described as possessing wealth, skills and culture by Ancient authors but never wrote down any of their laws, customs or beliefs. The oral tradition of storytelling was strong, however, and survived particularly well in Ireland, which was never part of the Roman Empire.

Sep 23

European Celtic Tribes

The Celtic Iron Age tribes of Gaul, known collectively as the Gauls, were not a single homogenous group but a vibrant mosaic of communities, each with its own customs, social structures, and political systems. Their story unfolds across the verdant landscapes of what is now modern-day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and parts of Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Germany, where they thrived from the 5th century BC until their eventual integration into the Roman Empire.

The Gauls were renowned for their mastery of ironworking, which revolutionized their agricultural and military capabilities, allowing them to carve out a dominant position in Iron Age Europe. Their society was complex and hierarchical, organized into tribes led by chieftains and kings, and deeply influenced by the druids, who held immense sway over both religious and secular affairs.

The Gauls’ artistry in metalwork, particularly in iron and gold, was matched by their prowess in battle, with their warriors known for their ferocity and distinctive war gear. Despite their martial skill, the Gauls were also traders and craftsmen, creating intricate designs that served both symbolic and functional purposes.

Their polytheistic religion, with a pantheon of gods associated with natural phenomena, war, trade, and crafts, was overseen by the druids, whose rituals often involved offerings and sacrifices. The Gauls’ legacy is not merely one of conflict; it is a story of cultural richness, societal complexity, and the enduring impact of their integration into the Roman world, which gave rise to the Gallo-Roman culture. This introduction aims to peel back the layers of time to explore the lives, beliefs, and legacies of these remarkable Iron Age peoples.

These tribes were united by a common Celtic language known as Gaulish and shared cultural traits, such as the La Tène artistic style. They were organized into various tribes and confederations, each with its own leadership and territories. The society was structured with a class system, including warriors, druids, and commoners. The Gauls are perhaps best known for their conflicts with the Roman Republic, particularly during the Gallic Wars led by Julius Caesar, which ultimately led to their subjugation and the Romanization of the region. Despite this, the Gauls left a lasting legacy on European history, culture, and language.

Aedui

A paramount tribe in central Gaul (France) occupying the territory around Autun. By virtue of their position close to the Rhône trade route, they adopted elements of classical culture. By Caesar’s time, because of intertribal fighting, their position of supremacy was declining, but by aligning themselves with Rome they soon restored their former importance.

Ambiani

The Ambiani, for instance, were known for their minting of coins and inhabited the region around modern-day Amiens.

Aulerci

The Aulerci, for example, were divided into several branches, including the Eburovices and Cenomani, and were known for their fierce independence.

Averni

A powerful tribe occupying the Massif Central in Caesar’s time. They were violently opposed to Roman rule.

Belgae

The Belgae, a powerful confederation of tribes in northern Gaul, were noted for their fierce resistance against Roman expansion.

Bellovaci

The Bellovaci, residing in the area of Beauvais, were one of the most powerful and warlike tribes, known for their fierce resistance against Roman forces.

Bituriges

The Bituriges, dwelling in the central part of Gaul, were influential through their control of sacred sites and their role in trade routes.

Bodiocasses

the Bodiocasses were a smaller tribe located in the Normandy region, were strategically placed along important trade routes.

Boii

The Boii were one of the more mobile of the Celtic tribes. In the fifth century, a substantial number migrated from north of the Alps and settled in the Po valley (Italy), the rest staying in the traditional territories in Bohemia. The north Italian group suffered under the Roman advance, while those in Bohemia later migrated westward into France, forced out by the Cimbri and Teutons.

Cadurci

The Cadurci, who lived in the area of Cahors, were fierce warriors and skilled horsemen.

Caletes

The Caletes, settled in the modern Haute-Normandie region, were skilled seafarers. They held significant maritime prowess, suggesting a strong tradition of seafaring and trade.

Carnutes

The Carnutes held a central position in Gaulish territory and are remembered for their sacred forest where the annual gathering of the druidic assembly took place.

Catalauni

The Catalauni, located in the Champagne region, were another distinct group, whose name is preserved in the modern city of Châlons-en-Champagne.

Cenomani

The Cenomani, located in the Le Mans region, had a strategic position along key trade routes.

Curiosolitae

The Curiosolitae, located in modern-day Brittany, were notable for their seafaring and trading prowess.

Diablintes

The Diablintes, situated in the northwest of Gaul, had a smaller territory but were strategically positioned along important trade routes.

Eburovices

The Eburovices, for example, were located in the modern-day region of Normandy and were known for their resistance against Caesar during the Gallic Wars.

Eravisci

A tribe occupying much of Transdanubia (Hungary) with one of their principal settlements on the Danube around modern-day Budapest. They may have moved into the region from the north in the first century A.D. Eraviscan culture remained strong throughout the early part of the Roman occupation: Celtic dress and jewellery continued to be worn even by the rich families as is witnessed by tombstone reliefs.

Helvetii

A tribe occupying much of modern Switzerland. In the first century A.D., as a result of population growth and pressure from tribes to the north, they decided to migrate westward into Gaul (i.e. France). In 58 B.C. Caesar halted their migration and defeated them, forcing the remnants to return home.

Lemovices

The Lemovices, who inhabited the area around modern Limoges, were renowned for their craftsmanship in enamels and metalwork.

Lexovii

The Lexovii, neighbours to the Eburovices, occupied the area around present-day Lisieux and were involved in the maritime trade.

Mandubii

The Mandubii were known for their fortified settlement at Alesia, the site of the decisive battle where Julius Caesar defeated Vercingetorix.

Mediomatrici

The Mediomatrici, in the region of Metz, were recognized for their metallurgical skills and agricultural prosperity.

Menapii

The Menapii, who lived along the North Sea coast, were recognized for their fierce independence and control over the marshlands.

Morini

The Morini, at the closest point to Britain, were involved in cross-channel trade and occasional raids.

Namnetes

The Namnetes, settled around the Loire estuary, played a significant role in maritime commerce.

Nervii

One of the Belgic tribes of northern Gaul (France) living in central Belgium, east of the Scheldt. They put up powerful resistance to Caesar and were virtually annihilated by him.#

Nitiobriges

The Nitiobriges, settled around Agen, were involved in trade along the Garonne river.

Osismii

The Osismii inhabited the western tip of Brittany and were known for their seafaring and trading activities.

Parisii

The Parisii, giving their name to the modern city of Paris, settled along the Seine and were known for their craftsmanship and trade.

Petrocorii

The Petrocorii inhabited the region around present-day Périgueux and were known for their craftsmanship in metalwork.

Pictones

The Pictones, inhabiting the region around modern-day Poitiers, were recognized for their strong agricultural practices and minting their own coinage.

Raurici

The Raurici, near modern Basel, played a significant role in trade due to their location at the crossroads of several important routes.

Redones

The Redones, located in the Brittany region, were influential in the network of trade routes across the channel.

Remi

The Remi, who inhabited the region around modern-day Reims, were known for their horse breeding and as skilled negotiators.

Ruteni

The Ruteni, located in the region of Rodez, had a strategic position along the trade routes between the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts.

Santones

The Santones, in the western part of Gaul, were notable for their prosperous port of Santonum, now the city of Saintes.

Scordisci

After the migration into Greece had failed, many thousands of Celts poured back into Central Europe to find land to settle. One group, the Scordisci, led by Bathanatos, settled between the rivers Drava and Sava with an oppidum on the site of modern Beograd. They were a powerful force in the subsequent settlement in the rest of Transdanubia.

Segusiavi

The Segusiavi were located in the region of Lyon and were known for their strategic position along the Rhône river.

Senones

The Senones were renowned for their sack of Rome in 390 BC under the leadership of Brennus

Sequani

The Sequani, controlling the strategic trade routes along the Doubs river, were influential in the iron trade, which was vital for weaponry and tools.

Sotiates

The Sotiates, dwelling in the southwest, were known for their resistance against Roman forces.

Sulbanectes

The Sulbanectes were located near modern-day Soissons. 

Suessiones

The Suessiones, neighbours to the Remi, held strategic territories along the river valleys and were known for their agricultural prosperity.

Treveri

The Treveri, located in the northeastern region, were esteemed for their cavalry.

Veliocasses

The Veliocasses, were located in the vicinity of Rouen.

Velocasses

The Velocasses, who settled in the modern-day Normandy region, were known for their agricultural practices and strategic trade routes.

Venetii

Maritime tribe living in the southwest of the Armorican peninsula. They were traders and acted as middlemen in shipping goods from Britain to the south.In 56 B.C., they rebelled against Caesar but were soundly beaten in a sea battle at Quiberon, and as a result all the leading men executed and the rest sold as slaves.

Viducasses

The Viducasses, located in the Normandy region, were a smaller tribe but were strategically placed along important trade routes. 

Vocontii

The Vocontii inhabited the southeastern part of Gaul and were known for their peaceful nature and prosperous agriculture.

Volcae

The Volcae were originally neighbours of the Boii in Central Europe. An offshoot of the tribe probably contributed to the Volcae Tectosages, one branch of them settled in southern Gaul (France) while the other moved into Anatolia. The Gaulish group possessed a vast treasure of gold and silver which was pillaged by the Romans in 106 B.C.

The Volcae were split into two groups—the Tectosages and the Arecomici—held territories in the southern part of Gaul.

Legacy of the Gauls

These ancient Gaulish tribes are remembered today through a variety of means, reflecting their enduring impact on European history and culture. Many of their names are preserved in the places they once inhabited, such as the Parisii in Paris, the Remi in Reims, and the Helvetii in the Swiss region of Helvetia.

Their legacy is also evident in numerous archaeological sites across France and neighbouring countries, where excavations have unearthed settlements, artifacts, and inscriptions that offer insights into their way of life. Museums display these findings, providing a tangible connection to the past.

Additionally, the Gauls have captured the imagination of the public and scholars alike, featuring prominently in literature, art, and popular media. The fusion of Roman and Gaulish cultures gave rise to the Gallo-Roman civilization, which has left a lasting mark on the legal, architectural, and linguistic heritage of contemporary society.

Sep 23

Celtic Tribes

The known British Celtic Tribes, an overview

The Iron Age in Britain was a period of profound social transformation and cultural vibrancy, marked by the emergence of distinct tribal identities that would shape the island’s history for centuries to come. As the Bronze Age waned, a new era dawned, characterized by the use of iron, which revolutionized tools and weaponry, and gave rise to a patchwork of tribes across the British landscape. These tribes, each with their unique customs, beliefs, and political structures, were the ancestors of the peoples of modern Britain.

The names of these tribes, such as the Iceni, Trinovantes, and Catuvellauni in the south, the Brigantes in the north, and the Silures and Ordovices in the west, were recorded by Roman and Greek historians and geographers, particularly Ptolemy, whose accounts provide invaluable insights into the distribution and territories of these groups. The archaeological record, enriched by the distribution of Celtic coins and pottery assemblages, offers a tangible link to these Iron Age societies, revealing the complexity of their settlements, from hillforts to sophisticated roundhouses.

The Iron Age tribes of Britain were not isolated entities; they interacted with each other and with continental Europe, as evidenced by shared names with tribes in France and Belgium, suggesting movements of people and ideas across the Channel.

This period also saw the rise of powerful chieftains and the formation of tribal kingdoms, hinting at a hierarchical society that valued warrior prowess, as reflected in the richly adorned weaponry and chariots buried with their elite. The legacy of the Iron Age tribes is not merely an academic curiosity; it is a story of resilience, innovation, and the enduring human spirit, which continues to captivate and inspire. As we delve into the history of these ancient Britons, we uncover a narrative that is integral to understanding the cultural and historical fabric of Britain, a narrative that is as complex as it is fascinating.

Atrebates

The Atrebates (pronounced Atre-bar-te) occupied the area now known as Hampshire. This British tribe shares its name with and has close relations with another tribe in pre-Roman France (Gaul). This tribe was the second most powerful group in southern Britain at the time of the Roman Conquest. They issued and used coins, and had many contacts with France. They probably consisted of a group of tribes ruled by a single dynasty. Their territory originally stretched from what is today West Sussex, Hampshire and Berkshire.

After the Roman Conquest, their territory was divided into three separate civitates. One tribal centre was at the major settlement at Silchester, near Reading. Another major Royal centre, comparable to those at St Albans, Colchester and Stanwick, was at Chichester. The Atrebates had long links of trade with France, and it is likely that people from the Atrebates were related by married to people from French tribes. The origin of the name Atrebates may have come from France.

A French leader from the French tribes called the Atrebates, Commius, fled to Britain during Julius Caesar’s conquests of Gaul. Commius then appears as the name of the Atrebates ruler. From about 15 BC, the Atrebates seem to have established friendly relations with Rome, and it was an appeal for help from the last Atrebatic king, Verica, which provided Claudius with the pretext for the invasion on Britain in AD 43. After the Roman Conquest, the territory of the Atrebates was divided up, with Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) becoming the capital of a Roman civitas the administered the area of modern Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Surrey and north Hampshire. The name Atrebates means ‘settlers’ or ‘inhabitants’.

Belgae

The Belgae were probably not a British tribe. Rather the Romans created this civitas (an administrative unit within a Roman province). Before the Roman Conquest, the whole of the territory between what is today, West Sussex, Hampshire and Berkshire was the territory of the Atrebates.

The Romans applied the name Belgae to a whole group of tribes in northwest Gaul, but the appearance of a civitas of this name in Britain is something of a mystery. According to the Roman geographer Ptolemy, its territory included not only Winchester but also Bath, and a nearby, but as yet unidentified settlement called Ischalis. It seems likely that Ptolemy has made an error here since the resulting shape of the territory of the Belgae would bear little resemblance to pre-Roman tribal geography and would be something of an administrative nightmare.

If the civitas was actually focussed around Winchester (called by the Romans Venta Belgarum – town of the Belgae) there is still a problem, since this area seems to have been part of the old kingdom of the Atrebates. The civitas of the Belgae was therefore most probably an artificial creation of the Roman administration, like the neighbouring civitas of the Regni, and was created at about the same time in c. AD 80 following the death of King Cogidubnus. Its administrative capital at Winchester was known as Venta Belgarum, which was an important settlement before the Roman Conquest.

Brigantes

This large tribe was, like the Votadini, a federation of smaller communities. The name means ‘upland people’ or ‘hill dwellers’. This name is very appropriate as the Pennines formed the heart of their territory. After the Roman Conquest, the Brigantes were formed into a huge civitates, or administrative unit that covered most of Yorkshire, Cleveland, Durham and Lancashire.

It stretched from the North Sea to the Irish Sea. We know the names of some of the smaller tribes they comprised the Brigantes at the time of the Roman Conquest. They include the Setanti in Lancashire, the Lopocares, the Corionototae and the Tectoverdi around the Tyne valley.

This huge area was very varied. As well as people living in the Dales and hills, many people farmed the fertile land in Durham, Tyneside and Teeside. At the time of the Roman Conquest, people in this region wore swords carried in distinctive local metal scabbards that were highly decorated. An important centre for the Brigantes was built at Stanwick in North Yorkshire in the first century AD.

This was probably the capital of King Venutius after he defeated Cartimandua in AD69. Cartimandua, the rightful ruler of the Brigantes and Venutius’ ex-wife was friendly towards the Romans, but her husband became anti-Roman after their split. Venutius and Cartimandua fought for many years until in 69AD when she was finally expelled from the kingdom. In 70 AD, the Romans invaded and occupied the territory and completed their conquest of the Britons and went on to conquer much of Scotland. In the subsequent years of the Roman occupation, the Brigantes were the cause of many serious revolts, which culminated in the building of Hadrian’s Wall.

Carvetii

This tribe lived in what is today Cumbria. They are a poorly known group which were made into their own civitas (an administrative unit or ‘county’) in the Roman Province. There is very little archaeological evidence of the people who lived in this area before the Roman Conquest. Like their neighbours, the Novantae, these people probably lived in small farms. They did not use coins or have big hillforts. The Carvetii might have been a smaller tribe within the large kingdom or federation of the Brigantes.

Cantii

 

Cantiaci

This is the name of the tribe or people who lived in north and east Kent. Like other peoples in southeast Britain at the time of the Roman Conquest, this group was very open to influences from France and the Mediterranean World. They had been using coins for at least 150 years. Like the Catuvellauni and Trinovantes they buried their dead according to the north French custom of cremation. This small tribe became part of the large kingdom of Cunobelinus. After the Roman Conquest, they became a civitas based on their principal settlement at Canterbury. The name of the modern city of Canterbury still contains the name of this Iron Age tribe.

Caledones (Caledonii)

This is the name of peoples who lived in the Scottish Highlands and Islands. The Romans used the word Caledones to describe both a single tribe who lived in the Great Glen between the modern towns of Inverness and Fort William. They also called all the tribes living in the north Caledonians. We know the names of some of these other tribes. They include the Cornovii and Smertae who probably lived in Caithness, the Caereni who lived in the far west of the Highlands, the Carnonacae and the Creones in the Western Highlands. The Vacomagi lived in and around the Cairngorns.

Other unknown tribes lived in Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides. Warriors from many of these tribes came together to resist the Romans under a leader called Calgacus at the battle of Mons Graupius in AD 84. Although the Romans won this battle, they never successfully conquered the Highlands. The Romans admired the Caledonii for their ability to endure cold, hunger and hardship.

Tacitus described them as red-haired and large-limbed. All these tribes lived very different lifestyles than neighbouring peoples in other parts of Scotland. In many areas, they lived in tall stone towers, called Brochs, or other fortified sites, called Duns. Unlike the Taexali and Venicones, the Caledones rarely made religious offerings of fine metal objects.

Catuvellauni

The Catuvellauni were the tribe that lived in the modern counties of Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and southern Cambridgeshire. Their territory also probably included tribes in what is today Buckinghamshire and parts of Oxfordshire. The tribal name possibly means ‘good in battle’. The Catuvellauni existed as a tribe at the time of Julius Caesar, but in the following years became a mighty group. Their first known king was Tasciovanus, who is known from the coins he minted with his name on them.

He founded a royal and ritual centre at Verulamium, modern St Albans in about AD10. There were several other large settlements or clusters of villages in their territory, such as at Baldock and Welwyn. Before this time, the Catuvellauni, Trinovantes and Cantiaci were very different from other British tribes. They had been using coins for at least a century, adopted the same way of burying the dead as was practised in northern France, and eat and dressed in ways more common in France than in other parts of Briton.

Tasciovanus’ successors created a large kingdom through conquest and alliance that included the Trinovantes and Cantiaci. The most successful king was Cunobelinus (Cymbeline) who had maintained a pro-Roman stance until his death in 40 AD. Afterwards, two of his three sons, Caracatu and Togidubnus became anti-Roman and invaded the Atrebates and the Trinovantes (held by their pro Roman Brother Adminius).

This was the reason that Claudius used to invade and conquer southern Britain in 43 AD. Apart from this brief period, the Catuvellauni were one of the most pro-Roman of British peoples. They rapidly and peacefully adopted Roman lifestyles and Roman rule after the conquest. A wealthy grave of a pro-Roman Catuvellaunian ruler who lived at the time of the Roman Conquest has been excavated at Folly Lane, St Albans. They became one of the first civitas in the new province, Verulamium becoming one of the first and most successful cities in Roman Britain.

Corieltauvi (Coritani)

Another of the larger tribes, with tribal capitals and extensive farmlands. After the conquest of 43AD they were probably one of the first to become suppliant. However, between 43AD and 47AD the Romans found cause to enter the territory of the Coritani and made a legionary fortress of the capital Retae (Leicester). It is likely that those tribes north of Leicester were brought under the administration of Brigantia, who were enjoying a fruitful relationship with the Romans.

This large tribe appears to have been created only shortly before the Roman Conquest of Britain. It offered no resistance to the Romans and was quickly turned into a civitas (an administrative district equivalent to a modern county) with its capital at the city of Leicester. The Corieltauvi combined groups of people living in what is today most of the East Midlands (Lincolnshire. Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Northamptonshire). Before about 50 to 1 BC, archaeological evidence suggests two different groups or tribes lived in this region.

One lived in what is today Lincolnshire, the other in what is today Northamptonshire. Both areas were different to each other and were important centres of population and economy in the period c. 400 and 100 BC. At this time, Leicestershire was not a critical area. The Corieltauvi are known from their coins that are found throughout the East Midlands. This group appears to have been a new federation that united earlier different groups. This was a region where people lived in villages, and sometimes larger settlements. Leicester was certainly an important large settlement before the Roman Conquest, as were a number of large settlements in Lincolnshire, such as Dragonby and Old Sleaford. Between 43AD and 47AD the Romans found cause to enter the territory of the Coritani and made a legionary fortress of the capital Retae (Leicester), moving the IX legion there as part of the early Roman expansion.

Cornovii

The Cornovii are a surprisingly obscure tribe, given that they lay well within the boundaries of the Roman province and their civitas capital, Wroxeter, was one of the largest in Britain. They share their name with a Caledonian tribe who lived in the far north of Scotland. The name probably means ‘people of the horn’. There is no reason to think that this group shared any common ancestry with the group in Caithness. Many tribes or peoples in Europe at the time of the Roman Conquest shared similar names. This might be because these tribes had contacts with each other. But it is just as likely to be a coincidence, as people used similar types of names for themselves such as ‘the people of the mountains’ or ‘the brave people’ etc. The Cornovii never issued coinage and before the Roman Conquest and left little evidence behind. They probably lived in what are today the modern counties of Staffordshire, Shropshire and Cheshire.

Damnonii

This tribe lived in the central part of Scotland around what is today Glasgow and Strathclyde. The name of this tribe could be spelt either as Damnonii or as Dumnonii. The Dumnonii is also the name of a tribe who lived in Devon and Cornwall at the same time. Many tribes in Britain and France at the time of the Roman Conquest shared similar names. In some cases, this was probably due to part migrations of tribes due to internal conflict or external factors such as the expansion of Rome, it could also be coincidence, as people used similar types of names for themselves, such as ‘the people of the mountains’, ‘people of the horn’ or ‘the brave people’ etc. The Dumnonii were conquered by the Romans and for many years their territory was occupied by the Roman army before they retreated further south to the line of Hadrian’s Wall.

Deceangli

The Deceangli, the Ordovices and the Silures were the three main tribal groups who lived in the mountains of Wales. The Deceangli were the peoples of what is today north Wales. They probably included the peoples who lived and supported the Druid centre on the Isle of Anglesey. The Romans considered Anglesey, or Mona as they and the locals at the time called it, as the stronghold of the Druids in Britain. The Romans learnt that many Kings in Gaul would send their son’s to Mona for education, thus reinforcing this illegal religion, this made Mona a prime target for the Romans.

Caratacus‘ last battle was Close by in Newtown in the Territory of the Ordovices, helping to prevent the fall of Mona, after he was defeated, the local Brigantes revolted, helping to stall the Roman advance. On the eve of Boudica’s revolt in what is today East Anglia, the Roman Army had only just completed the long and difficult task of conquering the tribes living in the Welsh Mountains. The final episode of that conquest was the invasion of Anglesey and the slaughter of the Druids there.

Demetae

These were the people who lived in the fertile lands of Pembrokeshire and much of Carmarthenshire in southwest Wales. They lived in small farms scattered across the countryside. This people shared many features of their lives with their neighbours across the Bristol Channel in Devon and Cornwall. They were friendly towards the Romans and quickly adapted to Roman rule. Unlike their more warlike and scattered neighbours in the mountains of Wales; the Silures and the Ordovices. Because of this, the Demetae did not need to be intensively garrisoned by the Roman army, except along their eastern border, which may have been to protect them from their hostile neighbours, the Silures. The tribe was incorporated into the province of Britannia and became a civitas (an administrative unit, or county, within the Roman province). The capital of the Roman civitas was at Carmarthen (Moridundum Demetarum).

Dubunni

This large tribe lived in the southern part of the Severn Valley and the Cotswolds. They were one of the few groups to issue coins before the Roman Conquest. The main distribution of these coins shows that the Dubunni occupied or ruled an area as far south as the Mendip’s. The coins also hint that the group was divided into northern and southern subgroups. The Dubunni lived in very fertile farmland in farms and small villages. They did not resist the Roman Conquest, unlike their neighbours, Silures. Indeed, they may have been one of the first tribes to submit to the Romans, even before the Romans reached their territory. The Dubunni had a central or important settlement at Bagendon in Gloucester, on the eastern edge of their territory. This centre was replaced by the important Roman city of Cirencester, which became the capital of the Dubunnic civitas after the Roman Conquest.

Dumnonii

A British tribe that occupied the whole of the South West peninsula and parts of Southern Somerset. They did not use coins. Nor did they have large settlements to act of political centres for the tribe. The Dumnonii were probably a group of smaller tribes that lived across the large area of Cornwall, Devon and Somerset. There is no evidence for a dynasty of Dumnonian kings. People lived in small farmsteads, usually surrounded by large walls. They shared similar styles of highly decorated pottery. There is also evidence for contacts and trade with Brittany.

However, there were also local differences in the types of settlements and other aspects of life between different parts of Devon and Cornwall. Cornwall was one of the few parts of Britain where the dead were buried at this time. The Dumnonii appear to have accepted the Roman conquest without resistance and as a result, few garrison forts were placed in their territory. Yet, this area never fully adopted Roman ways of life. Lifestyles and types of settlements remained little changed from the Iron Age through the Roman period. The Romans granted them civitas status and the town of Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) was their administrative centre.

Durotriges

The Durotriges (pronounced duro-tree-gays) Centred in Dorset, this people were also found in southern parts of Wiltshire and Somerset and western Dorset. This was a people that minted and used coins before the Roman Conquest, but there is no evidence from the coins or burials for a strong dynasty of kings. Rather, the Durotriges seem to have been a loosely knit confederation of smaller tribal groups at the time of the Roman conquest. One of these smaller tribal groups that lived around Dorchester, buried their dead in inhumation cemeteries. A unique feature of the Durotriges at this time was that they still occupied hillforts. Although hillforts are one of the most well-known features of the Iron Age, most were no longer occupied at the turn of the first millennium.

The best known of these Durotrigean hillforts is that of Maiden Castle near Dorchester, others include South Cadbury Castle and Hod Hill. The Durotriges did have some trading contacts with France. A major trading centre existed at Hengistbury Head from which cross-channel trade with Gaul was controlled. This may be the settlement called Dunium by Ptolemy. It was located on the border between the Durotriges and Atrebates. However, cross channel trade was not an important source of goods for the Durotriges, who preferred local products.

A particular type of pottery made at Poole Harbour was traded throughout the territory of the Durotriges. At the time of the Roman invasion the Durotriges put up a spirited if unsuccessful opposition, and they are almost certainly one of the two tribes that Suetonius records fighting against Vespasian and the 2nd legion. After the conquest, they were made into a civitas with their capital was at Durnovaria (Dorchester) in the mid-70’s. Later, a second Durotrigean civitas was created, administered from Lindinis (Ilchester).

Epidii

Little is known about this tribe. They lived in the modern region of Kintyre and probably the islands of Arran, Jura and Islay

Iceni

This was another tribe that issued coins before the Roman Conquest. Their coins and other archaeological evidence indicates that the tribe’s territory was in the modern counties of Norfolk and parts of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire. They appear to have been a wealthy and powerful group of tribes between 200 and 50 BC. From their territory come the finest hoards of gold treasure found in Iron Age Britain; the Snettisham Torc’s.

Other hoards of elaborately decorated bronze chariot fittings point to a love of conspicuous display by the nobles of the Iceni. This tribe also shunned contacts with the Roman world and the changes they brought with them that characterised the lifestyles of Catuvellauni and Trinovantes at this time. The Iceni had important religious centres at Snettisham and at Thetford. But when they were made into Roman Civitas, the Romans did not choose either of these centres, but the settlement at Caistor, near what is today Norwich.

Was this because the Iceni led the most successful revolt against Roman rule in the history of Roman Britain? When the Romans invaded southern Britain in AD 43, the Iceni were friendly towards the new rulers. Their king Prasutagus became a client-king of Rome. But on his death the kingdom was incorporated into the Roman province and, together with other abuses, led to the Icenian revolt led by Prasutagus’ widow, Queen Boudica.

Novantae

A little known tribe or people who lived in what is today south-west Scotland. The people living in this area did not build massive forts on the tops of mountains, as did the Votadini. Nor did the make many offerings of fine metal objects. Like their neighbours to the south, the Carvetii, archaeologists have found little evidence of the lives of these peoples before the Roman Conquest. They were clearly farmers and herders, but few of their farms and other settlements have been excavated by archaeologists so far.

Ordovices

This group covered much of the mountains and valleys of what is today mid-Wales. They were the northern neighbours of the Silures and the Southern neighbours of the Degeangli. Like the Silures and Degeangli, these peoples lived in small farms, often defended against attack. After the emperor Claudius invaded southern England in AD 43, one of the main leaders of the Britons, Caratacus, led his army to the Silures after his defeat on the Medway and the fall of his Capital, Camulodunum. Having raised forces with the Silures he travelled to the territory of the Ordovices and fought with them against the Roman’s in their push against Mona. He was defeated close to Newtown in 50AD. The Silures and the Ordovices remained unconquered for some time afterwards as the Roman’s were pre-occupied by other matters. The Roman general Agricola finally defeated the Ordovices in 77-8. The tribe was incorporated into Britannia and became a civitas (an administrative district).

Parisii

The Parisi lived in East Yorkshire. They had a tiny patch of territory which formed a Selby – Bridlington – Spurn Head triangle. The Parisii seemed to have their own unique culture for this part of Britain, having square burial enclosures, many containing chariot burials.

The Parisi share their name with the people who lived in France around what is today Paris. Whether both tribes shared strong links is hotly debated. Unlike other people living in Britain between about 300 and 100 BC, the people in East Yorkshire buried their dead in large cemeteries. This was much like the way many people in France and Germany buried their dead at the same time.

However, in other respects, the East Yorkshire Parisi lived in British style houses, wore British style ornaments and used British style pottery. At the time of the Romans, the Parisi had stopped burying their dead in this unusual way. However, they carried on other distinctive styles of life and remained separate from their large, powerful neighbours, the Brigantes. During the Roman advance into Brigantia in 70AD, the Parisii played an instrumental role, giving the IX legion an unmolested route via Brough up the eastern side of the country towards York. After the Roman Conquest, they were made into their own small civitas with their capital at Petuaria (modern Brough on Humber)

Regni

The Regni holds a special place in the history of Roman Britain. Under the leadership of Cogidubnus, it achieved the fastest level of Romanisation in Britain. By providing facilities for the Romans, and access to the harbour at Chichester, it gave Claudius a massive foot hold on the south coast. In return for this, Cogidubnus was given a magnificent palace at Fishbourne. There is some argument to suggest that the Roman arrival happened in this area, in the territory of a friendly king.

Selgovae

A British tribe of Scotland, the name is thought to mean ‘hunters’. The Roman geographer Ptolemy places them in the Southern uplands of Scotland. It is not clear from the little evidence we have as to exactly where these people lived. Some scholars place them in the upper Tweed Basin. It is unclear if they were part of the Votadini. They might have used Eildon Seat as their principal settlement. But this might have been a Votadinian site. Like the Votadini the Roman army in AD 79-80 conquered them.

Silures

Several Roman authors including Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus mention this tribe and later civitas (administrative unit in a Roman province). Their territory was south-east Wales – the Brecon Beacons and south Welsh valleys. A people of the mountains and valleys, we know relatively little about how they lived. Like the other tribes of the Welsh Mountains, they were difficult for the Romans to conquer and control.

For a time in the period around AD 45-57, they led the British opposition to the Roman advance westwards. Tacitus describes them as a strong and warlike nation, and for ten years or more the Romans fought to contain, rather than conquer them. Although defeated and occupied by the early 60s, their bitter resistance may explain the late grant of self-governing civitas status to them only in the early 2nd century. The capital was established at a previously unoccupied site at Caerwent and was given the name Venta Silurium.

Tacitus described them as swarthy and curly haired, and suggested their ancestors might be from Spain because of the similarities in appearance with some peoples in Spain. However, there is no evidence to suggest any genetic links between south Wales and parts of Spain.

Taexali

Little is known about this group who lived in what is today Grampian. They shared much with their neighbours, the Venicones to the south. These low-lying and fertile parts of eastern Scotland provide archaeological evidence for different types of settlement and rituals compared to those of the Highlands and Islands to the west and north. Brochs and Duns are not found here. People lived in small undefended farms and hamlets. The name Taexali is sometimes spelt Taezali. Either spelling is a very unusual name that is not recognisably of the same Celtic origins as other British tribal names. Although the Taexali were defeated by the Romans in AD 84, they were never permanently occupied. Like the Venicones and Caledones, they lived beyond the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire; the Antonine Wall.

Trinovantes

The Trinovantes are the first British tribe to be mentioned by a Roman author, appearing in Caesar’s account of his invasion of 54 BC. Already at this early date, they seem to have been involved in a power struggle with the neighbouring tribes to the west who were to be forged into the kingdom of the Catuvellauni under Tasciovanus. This group shared the same ways of life and religious practices as the Catuvellauni and Cantiaci. They used coins, cremated their dead, ate from plates and drank from cups. They became part of the large kingdom established by the rules of the Catuvellauni.

The king Cunobelinus essentially absorbed the two tribes into one larger kingdom. He or his predecessors, established Colchester as a new royal site on the same model as St Albans. Colchester, the capital of the large kingdom, was the target for the Roman Emperor Claudius’ invasion in AD43. After the Roman Conquest, the Trinovantes were restored as a tribal entity in the form of a civitas (an administrative unit or county) within the new Roman Province. The capital of the civitas was the Roman city of Colchester, which was originally founded as a colony for retired Roman soldiers.

Venicones

This group lived in what is today Tayside. The Roman army campaigned several times in the territory of this people, but they were never permanently conquered and occupied. The archaeological evidence shows that this people and their northern neighbours, the Taexali, had much in common. The Venicones were one of the few groups in northern Britain at this time that buried their dead in stone lined graves. Graves and cremation burials were very rare in other parts of Britain before the Roman period. Archaeologists suspect people often practised complex funeral rituals in which bodies were naturally allowed to decompose. The Venicones and Taexali also made offerings of prestigious decorated locally made metal objects in bogs and lakes. Some of these offerings include massive bronze armlets. Each would weigh over 1.5 kg and were worn one on each arm. Only the Venicones and Taexali wore these unusual ornaments.

Votadini

This was a considerable tribe or people that lived in the south-east of Scotland. In the north, their territory started at Edinburgh and the Firth of Forth and stretched as far south as Northumberland in northern England. Where the boundary between the Votadini and the other large tribe, the Brigantes, who lived in northern England lay is not clear. It probably frequently shifted as a result of wars and as smaller tribes and communities changed allegiances. The Votadini, like the Brigantes, were a group made up of smaller tribes. We do not know the names of these smaller tribes and communities. Archaeologically, the territory of the Votadini was very different to that of either the Venicones or the Novantae. Large walls, banks and ditches surrounded most farms. People made offerings of fine metal objects, but never wore massive armlets.

There are also at least three considerable hillforts in their territory. Each was located on the top of a prominent hill or mountain. They may have been used for over a thousand years by this time as places of refuge and as places for meetings for political and religious ceremonies. These hillforts were at Yeavering Bell, Eildon Seat and Traprain Law. The Votadini were conquered and occupied by the Roman Army in AD 79-80.

Sep 23

Flora and Fauna associated with Brighid

Flora and Fauna Associated with Brighid

Plant life

  • Oak : The most obvious tree associated with her as this is the root of the place-name of the saints’ religious foundation: Kildare. This is derived from Cill Dara or “the church of the oak tree” and the saints’ foundation is strongly believed to have been founded on (or converted from) a Pagan holy place of the Goddess. 
  • Hazel : I owe this tree suggestion to the work done by Steve Blamires in his ‘Celtic Tree Mysteries’. Apparently, one description of the hazel tree in an ogham text is as the “fairest of trees” which is Cainiu Fedaib in Irish. However, cainiu also has the alternative meanings of to “keen over a death” and to “satirize someone”. For those who may be unfamiliar with these terms, to keen was the Irish practise of lamentation and wailing over the dead while a satire was not a specific form of humour, as in today’s general meaning, but was an unpleasant poem against a person and could range from insulting them to acting as destructive magic against them. These meanings firmly mark the hazel as a special tree of the Goddess as it was Brighid who was said to have started the practise of keening after the death of her son Ruadan and also Brighid who was the matron of the poets (filid) in Ireland. Another aspect which firmly links it to Brighid is that the hazel is strongly associated with wisdom.
  • Dandelion : This prolific little yellow flower is called bearnan Bride, or the “little notched of Bride”, according to notes in the Carmina Gadelica.

Animals

  • Cow : Cattle are possibly the most commonly mentioned animals associated with the Goddess. Brighid was said to be raised on the milk of an otherworld cow and Scottish charms, recorded in the Carmina Gadelica, call her ‘Bride of the milk and kine’ and ‘Brigit of the kine’. St. Brigid was said to have a white cow whose milk never ran dry. The Lebor Gabala Érenn mentions that the goddess Brigid, the daughter of The Dagda, had two royal oxen which (along with her Triath) cried out when Ireland was plundered. 
  • Boar : The Lebor Gabala also mentions that Brigid owned Triath (more commonly known as Torc Triath) which was the king of her boars. This great boar, along with her oxen, raised a cry when Ireland was plundered. There is evidence from the Welsh tradition of the importance of this boar for they have retained a tale of the hunt of an enchanted boar called Twrch Trwyth which was once a king. An examination of the cuts on boar bones excavated in Celtic countries has suggested that they were used more for ritual than for food. The boar hunt is an important motif in Celtic literature though archaeological evidence suggests that the stag hunt was a more common occurrence. Miranda Green has shown the battle symbolism of boars as their images were placed as motifs on weapons and armour. The martial nature of such an association is not incompatible with the calm loving goddess who is patroness of healers (amongst other occupations). It can be argued from the symbolism seen on the Romanised statue of Brigantia found in Birrens (the Brythonic Brigid) that She, appropriately enough for a Great Goddess, has a sovereign aspect and acts as a protectress: She bears a spear in one hand and a ‘globe’ in the other. To ensure peace within and protection for a community, it is necessary to be prepared to fight for them if the circumstances demand.
  • Serpent? : A serpent was supposed to emerge on St. Bride’s day, February 1st, and a song was sung to it. One version of this is:
    Early on Bride’s morn
    The serpent shall come from the hole,
    I will not molest the serpent
    Nor will the serpent molest me.
    This has been interpreted as a remnant of serpent worship. The element of uncertainty is because a folk custom was also recorded in the Carmina Gadelica on this day which is suggestive of a symbolic pounding of the serpent’s head but unfortunately the actual original significance of the pounding act is no longer known.

Birds
These are taken from notes in the Carmina Gadelica.

  • Linnet : bigein Bride or “little bird of Bride”.

  • Oyster-Catcher : Bridein or “Bird of Bride”. Also, gille Bride or “page of Bride”

Sep 23

The Goddess Brigantia – The ‘Exalted One’

Historical Background On The ‘Exalted One’

Tina Deegan

Brigit was one of the most popular, and widely worshipped, goddesses of the Celtic-speaking peoples. Brigit, which is Old Irish for “The Exalted One”, is just one of the variant spellings for this native goddess. Her name can also be spelt as Brighit, Briid and Brigid.

Caesar mentioned Minerva and the insular evidence of the British Isles highlights a Minerva type goddess important within these isles: ‘the exalted one’. Known as Brigantia from the Roman inscriptions in the north of England where she was the tutelary goddess of the Brigantes tribe(s), some of the iconography has ‘victory’ imagery. This goddess has been identified as identical with the Gaulish goddess Brigindo and also linked with Brigit, the pre-Christian Irish goddess who was linked with fire, smithing, fertility, cattle, crops and poetry.

She is usually believed to be the same goddess as Brigantia for Brigit is cognate with that name (or its’ pre-Roman form of Briganti). Brigantia, meaning “High One”, was the tutelary goddess of the confederation of Brythonic tribes called the Brigantes who were based in the north of the British Isles (very approximately equating to the modern north of England). Ptolemy also mentioned the Brigantes as being within southern Ireland. Yet, this goddess is not only found in the Insular cultures for inscriptions of another goddess, cognate with Brigit and Brigantia, called Brigindo, have been found in what was eastern Gaul.

John Koch has suggested (1) that, in the same way as there may have been a mortal high priestess at Brigit’s cult centre in Kildare in Ireland, there may have been a high priestess of Briganti in Britain and Cartimandua is an example of this. She was a queen of the Brigantes in the early Roman period of British history. He further supports this concept by considering the male leader of the Brigantes. Binchy has shown the derivation of the Welsh word for king, brenin, as being from brigantinos or “consort of the goddess Briganti” which originally referred to the male leader of the Brigantes.

A Romano-British carving survives of Brigantia and was found at Birrens in southern Scotland. She wears a crown and has a face in the centre of her chest: symbolism which links her with the classical goddess Minerva (the face being the Gorgon’s head in classical terms). She also cradles a spear with one arm and cradles a globe at her waist with the other hand. This is symbolism associated with the Roman goddess Victory.

The consideration of the nature of the Pre-Christian Irish goddess, Brigit, is complicated in that our surviving evidence comes from later Christian writers. Also, there is no surviving pagan imagery as Ireland was not conquered by the Romans, which might have led to some contemporary stone carvings or inscriptions as in Britain.

A couple of the earliest works, which specifically refer to the pagan goddess are the Lebor Gabála Érenn, a medieval work of pseudo-history which incorporates the old gods and goddesses, and also Sanas Chormaic, a glossary written about 900ce by Cormac mac Cuilennáin who was both bishop and king. The Lebor Gabala describes Brigid as “the poetess” or banfili. And the daughter of the Dagda whilst Cormac’s Glossary also refers(2) to her as the daughter of the Dagda but says she was one of three daughters called Brigit. She was the poetess and a woman of wisdom whilst her sisters were the physician and the smith.

Genealogy was significant to the Irish, for the basic family unit within the law was the fine : this was the surviving family to six generations. The recitation of a royal claimants’ genealogy was an integral part of the Gaelic coronation (as shown in Scotland). So it is notable she is one of the Tuatha Dé Danann, or ‘the people of the goddess Danu’ who were the Pre-Christian pantheon of Ireland, and also that her father is the Dagda, the ‘good god’ in the sense of skilled rather than as a moral description. He was a most important god to the Old Irish, he was known (amongst other things) by the titles “Father of All” and “Lord of Great Knowledge”.

She is described as married with children in a few tales. One account is where she is married to Bres (“The Beautiful”) and they have a son Ruadan who was killed in battle. Brigid went onto the battlefield to mourn for him and this was said to be the first keening (from caoine or “lament”) in Ireland. Bres is the son of Ériu (or Eri) by a Fomorian king, and he briefly takes the kingship of the Tuatha Dé Danann when Nuada loast an arm, but was exceedingly mean and oppressive and was deposed. After being captured in battle, Bres saves his life by advising the Tuatha Dé about agriculture. There is another account4 where she is said to be married to Tuireann and had three sons: Brian, Iuchar and Iucharba. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn these are listed as the “three gods of the Tuatha Dé Danann” though little is known of them as gods.

Modern linguistic analysis has shown Cormac’s analysis of Brigit’s name, i.e. as being from breo-agit or “fiery arrow”, to be wrong, but I am uncertain whether this is a part of the erroneous etymologies he used from Isidore of Seville or whether it was from some lost source which contained contemporary pagan imagery about her.

Another source of information about the goddess, though also a complicating factor, is details from the life of the (approximately) fifth century Christian Saint Brigit and the folklore associated with her. It is widely accepted that this most important female saint in Ireland has assumed some aspects of, and likely lore from, Brigit the goddess. But assumptions or deductions have to be made as to what about Saint Brigit is an inheritance from the pagan goddess. One likely indicator is that the saint’s feast day is 1st February, Lá Fhéile Bríde, which happens to be the same day as the old Pre-Christian feast of Imbolc.

There are also variant spellings associated with the saint such as Bridget (especially popular on the Isle of Man), Brigid, Bríd, Bride and Brighid. There is also a Breton saint, Saint Barbe, who is also believed to be derived from a Pre-Christian fire goddess.(3) She was the patroness of firemen. Though, unlike St. Bridget, she was venerated on the last Sunday in June.

Endnotes
1. John T. Koch (ed.) with John Carey, The Celtic Heroic Age, (Celtic Studies Publications, USA 1995), p.39
2. As cited in the website of Ord Brighideach (https://members.aol.com/gmkkh/brighid/ob.htm May 1999)
3. James MacKillop, Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, (Oxford University Press 1998), p. 30
4. As quoted by Peter Berresford Ellis, A Dictionary of Irish Mythology, (Oxford University Press 1991), p.49

Additional Sources

Séamas Ó Cáthain, The Festival of Brigit: Celtic Goddess & Holy Woman, (DBA Publications 1995)

Miranda Green, Celtic Goddesses, (British Museum Press 1995)

Dr. Daithi O hOgain, Myth, Legend & Romance: An Encyclopaedia of the Irish Folk Tradition, (Ryan Publishing 1990)

Bernard Maier (Cyril Edwards trans.), Dictionary of Celtic Religion and Culture, (Boydell & Brewer 1997)

Sep 23

Celtic Religion and Beliefs

Celtic religions and beliefs

Celtic beliefs and superstitions

The Iron Age Celts, who flourished from around 700 BCE to 400 CE, held a polytheistic belief system with a pantheon of gods and goddesses. They believed in the sanctity of the natural world, with certain landscapes such as groves, springs, and river sources being considered sacred. These sites often housed temples and shrines where the druids, the priestly class, conducted rituals and sacrifices to appease the deities. The druids were central figures in Celtic society, revered for their wisdom and knowledge of the natural world and the mystical forces within it. They were responsible for religious ceremonies, divination, and the interpretation of omens, as well as maintaining the oral history of their people.

Sacrifice was a significant aspect of Celtic worship, with offerings ranging from valuable objects to animals and even humans, believed to ensure the favour of the gods. Weapons were also offered to the gods by casting them into bodies of water, which were seen as portals to the Otherworld. The human head was venerated, with the skulls of ancestors and enemies often kept for worship. The Celts saw supernatural forces in every aspect of nature, with celestial bodies like the moon, sun, and stars playing a crucial role in their belief system.

The Roman conquest and the spread of Christianity led to the decline of the Celtic religion. However, the legacy of their beliefs can still be seen in various cultural practices and folklore across regions that were once Celtic territories. The reverence for nature and the mystical, which characterized the Celtic belief system, continues to fascinate and influence people around the world today.

The Druids

The Druids were a high-ranking priestly class within ancient Celtic cultures, revered for their vast knowledge and authority in various domains of life. They were the intellectual elite, serving not only as religious leaders but also as legal authorities, adjudicators, lore keepers, medical professionals, and political advisors. The druids are believed to have been literate; however, they left no written records, possibly due to a doctrine that forbade it. Much of what is known about them comes from accounts by contemporaries from other cultures, such as the Romans and Greeks. The earliest references to the druids date back to the 4th century BC, with the most detailed early description by Julius Caesar in his “Commentarii de Bello Gallico” from the 50s BCE. Roman writers like Cicero, Tacitus, and Pliny the Elder also provided descriptions of the druids.

Following the Roman invasion of Gaul, the druid orders faced suppression under the Roman emperors Tiberius and Claudius in the 1st century CE and had vanished from the written record by the 2nd century. The term ‘druid’ resurfaces in historical records around 750 AD in a poem by Blathmac, who compared Jesus Christ favourably against the druids. In medieval tales from Christianized Ireland, such as “Táin Bó Cúailnge,” druids are often depicted as sorcerers resisting the advent of Christianity.

The revival of interest in Celtic culture during the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of fraternal and neopagan groups inspired by ancient Druidry, a movement known as Neo-Druidism. However, many modern conceptions of the druids are based on misconceptions from 18th-century scholars and have been largely revised by more recent studies. The etymology of the word ‘druid’ is derived from Latin ‘druidēs’ and is believed to originate from a native Gaulish word. The association of druids with oak trees, suggested by Pliny the Elder, has been questioned, and the term is now thought to mean ‘one with firm knowledge’ or ‘a great sage’.

In Iron Age Britain, life was deeply influenced by the druids. They were central figures in society, often holding more importance than the tribal leaders themselves. Druids could be both men and women, acting as healers, judges, and educators. They were believed to possess the ability to see into the future and were integral to the spiritual and religious life of the people. They led ceremonies, including animal and sometimes human sacrifices, and made offerings to the spirits, which were buried or cast into bodies of water. The druids were also responsible for the education of the youth, ensuring the transmission of their rich oral tradition and knowledge of the natural world, which was integral to the Celtic way of life.

The Iron Age was a period of significant development in Britain, with the introduction of iron tools greatly enhancing farming and leading to larger settlements. The society was structured around clans and tribes led by warrior kings, and the druids played a crucial role in maintaining the balance between the physical and spiritual aspects of life. Their influence extended beyond the spiritual realm into the daily lives of the Iron Age people, reflecting a culture that valued wisdom, knowledge, and harmony with the natural world. The legacy of the druids continues to fascinate and inspire people today, reflecting the enduring allure of these enigmatic figures who once held sway over ancient Celtic lands.

Druidic beliefs

The religious beliefs of the Druids, the learned class of the Ancient Celts, are not precisely known due to the lack of written records from the Druids themselves. However, it is widely accepted that they practised a form of polytheism, worshipping multiple deities who were closely associated with natural elements and phenomena. The Druids held a deep reverence for nature, seeing the divine in rivers, trees, stones, and the sky. This pantheistic view recognized the Earth itself as sacred, and they believed in the interconnectedness of all living things.

Druids also believed in an Otherworld, a realm beyond the physical, where spirits and deities resided. This belief in the afterlife was integral to their practices, which included rites of passage that symbolically represented death and rebirth. They celebrated seasonal festivals that marked significant transitions in the natural world, aligning their spiritual practices with the rhythms of the Earth.

The concept of animism was also central to Druidic belief, with the idea that all elements of the landscape, such as mountains or rivers, possessed spirits. Such beliefs likely influenced their practices of divination and use of omens, as they sought to understand and communicate with these spirits.

Druidic rituals often involved offerings and sacrifices, which could include animals or, according to some Roman sources, even humans, although this is debated among historians. These acts were meant to appease the deities and ensure balance and harmony within their communities.

The Druids’ role as mediators between the physical and spiritual worlds was reflected in their position as advisors to the tribal leaders, guiding them with their knowledge of the divine will as interpreted through omens and signs.

Tribal pantheons

The Iron Age in Britain was a period marked by the emergence of tribal societies, each with its own distinct cultural practices and belief systems. The pantheons of these tribes were diverse, often localized, and are understood primarily through archaeological findings and the accounts of Roman and Greek historians. The tribal societies were organized into groups ruled by chieftains, and their religious practices were deeply intertwined with their daily lives, reflecting a world where the natural and the supernatural were closely linked.

The Celts, who were the predominant cultural group during the British Iron Age, had a polytheistic belief system with over 400 deities, each associated with aspects of life and the natural world, such as rivers, warfare, and craftsmanship. These deities were not universally worshipped but were often venerated in specific regions or by particular tribes. For instance, the tribe known as the Brigantes, which was one of the most powerful tribes in Northern Britain, might have had a pantheon that included deities associated with their territorial lands and warfare, given their known military prowess.

Evidence suggests that the Iron Age Britons’ religious practices included offerings and sacrifices, which could range from valuable metalwork to human lives, as part of their rituals to appease or gain favour from their gods. Sacred spaces, such as groves, springs, and hillforts, played a significant role in their worship, serving as communal places for religious ceremonies and gatherings. The Druids, a class of priests, bards, and soothsayers, were integral to the religious life of the Celtic tribes, overseeing rituals and maintaining the oral traditions that conveyed religious lore.

The transition from the Iron Age to the Roman period brought significant changes to the tribal pantheons of Britain. As the Romans conquered and settled in Britain, they introduced their own gods and religious practices, leading to a syncretism where local deities were often equated with Roman gods, blending the two belief systems. This syncretization is evident in the archaeological record, where inscriptions and iconography show a fusion of Celtic and Roman religious symbols and deities.

The study of Iron Age tribal pantheons is complex due to the scarcity of written records from the period. Most of what is known comes from the interpretation of archaeological evidence, such as votive offerings, inscriptions, and sacred sites, as well as the writings of Roman authors who often had their own biases and agendas. Despite these challenges, the pantheons of the Iron Age tribes provide a fascinating glimpse into the spiritual life of ancient Britons, revealing a society deeply connected to its gods and the natural world. The reverence for these deities and the rituals performed in their honour reflect the tribes’ desires for harmony, protection, and prosperity within their communities.

Belief in Iron Age Brigantia

The Brigantes, an Iron Age tribe in Britain, are known to have worshipped a pantheon of deities that were deeply intertwined with their daily life and natural environment. The name ‘Brigantes’ itself is derived from the Proto-Celtic *brigant-, which means “high” or “elevated,” and is linked to the goddess Brigantia, who was likely one of the principal deities of the tribe. Brigantia, associated with sovereignty and the land, may have been venerated as a protector and provider, embodying the power and prestige of the tribe. The Brigantes’ religious practices would have been polytheistic, venerating various gods and goddesses that represented different aspects of life and nature.

Archaeological evidence, such as the Stanwick Horse Mask, suggests that horses were significant in Brigantian culture, possibly indicating a deity or deities associated with horses, warfare, or the sun. The lack of written records from the Brigantes themselves means that much of what is known comes from Roman sources and archaeological interpretations. The Romans, who conquered the Brigantes during the reign of Antoninus Pius around AD 155, documented some aspects of Brigantian society, but their accounts were often biased and incomplete.

The Brigantes’ religious practices likely included rituals and ceremonies conducted by druids, who were the intellectual elite and spiritual leaders of Celtic tribes. These ceremonies might have taken place in natural settings like groves or near bodies of water, which were considered sacred. Offerings of weapons, jewellery, and other valuables have been found in such locations, suggesting ritual deposits made to curry favour with or give thanks to the gods.

The Brigantes’ pantheon would have also included local deities unique to their tribe and region, reflecting the interconnectedness of their society with the specific landscapes they inhabited. The presence of votive offerings and the construction of shrines at sites like Aldborough, believed to be the Roman town of Isurium Brigantum, provide further evidence of religious activities.

While the full extent of the Brigantes’ pantheon remains a mystery, the fusion of archaeological findings and historical accounts paints a picture of a rich spiritual life that played a central role in the identity and governance of the tribe. The Brigantes, like many Celtic tribes, had a deeply animistic religion, seeing the divine in the natural world around them. This connection to the land and its spirits would have been fundamental to their world-view, influencing everything from their political structures to their art and warfare.

The Brigantes’ tribal pantheon in Iron Age Britain was a complex tapestry of deities and spiritual beliefs that were integral to their culture and society. While the specifics of many of these deities and practices are lost to time, the legacy of the Brigantes’ spirituality continues to intrigue and fascinate historians and archaeologists alike.

The Brigantes had a rich spiritual tradition with a pantheon that included various deities, although much of the specifics remain shrouded in the mists of history. Beyond Brigantia, who was a central figure in their worship, the Brigantes likely venerated gods and goddesses common to Celtic polytheism, each associated with aspects of nature, war, fertility, and sovereignty.

Given the widespread practice of syncretism during the Roman occupation, it is plausible that the Brigantes worshipped deities that were later equated with Roman gods. For instance, the horse was a significant symbol in Brigantian culture, which might suggest the worship of a deity akin to Epona, the protector of horses, known from other Celtic regions and embraced by the Romans.

The presence of votive offerings and inscriptions found in the region, such as those at Aldborough, hint at a complex religious life where local deities were revered alongside more widely recognized gods. These local deities would have been deeply connected to the land and its features, such as rivers, hills, and forests, embodying the tribe’s relationship with their environment.

The Brigantes’ religious practices also included the veneration of ancestral spirits and heroes, which was a common feature in Celtic belief systems. These figures would have been honoured through storytelling, ritual feasting, and the erection of standing stones or other monuments.

The lack of direct written records from the Brigantes themselves complicates the task of identifying their deities. However, through the study of place names, archaeological finds, and the writings of Roman historians, scholars have pieced together a tapestry of religious life that suggests a diverse and vibrant pantheon.

Hints of past belief that remain today

The historical continuity of sacred sites from the Iron Age through the Roman period and into the Christian era in Britain is a fascinating subject that reflects the complex layers of religious and cultural evolution. The Iron Age in Britain, which lasted from about 800 BC until the Roman invasion in AD 43, was characterized by various religious practices often centred around natural phenomena and the veneration of a pantheon of deities. These practices were deeply rooted in the landscape, with certain locations holding spiritual significance that likely predates written history.

With the Roman conquest, these sites often became focal points for the imposition of Roman religious structures and deities. The Romans were known for their syncretic approach to religion, readily incorporating and adapting local gods within their own pantheon. This practice facilitated the Romanization of conquered territories, as it allowed for a degree of religious continuity while also establishing Roman cultural dominance. Evidence suggests that many prehistoric religious sites continued to be used during the Roman period, with the addition of Roman architectural styles and iconography.

The process of Christianization in Britain began in the 4th century but gained significant momentum following the mission of St. Augustine to Kent in AD 597. As Christianity spread, it too absorbed elements of the preceding religious traditions. Early Christian missionaries often built churches on sites that were already considered sacred, which may have included former Iron Age and Roman religious sites. This practice helped to ease the transition to Christianity by providing a sense of spiritual continuity, even as the new religion sought to distinguish itself from the old beliefs.

The incorporation of Celtic and Roman iconography into Christian settings is evident in the survival of certain motifs, such as the Green Man and archaic Celtic heads, within church architecture. The Green Man, often depicted as a face surrounded by or made of leaves, is a motif that appears in many cultures and is generally interpreted as a symbol of rebirth and the cyclical nature of life. Its presence in medieval church carvings has been variously interpreted as a representation of the triumph of Christianity over paganism, a symbol of the natural world, or a vestige of earlier religious beliefs that survived within the new Christian context.

Similarly, the use of archaic Celtic heads in church architecture may reflect a continuity of local artistic traditions and the integration of older religious symbols into Christian worship. These heads, which can be stylistically linked to pre-Christian Celtic art, may have served as a means of connecting the community’s ancestral past with its present faith, thus creating a bridge between the old and the new.

In summary, the religious landscape of Britain is a palimpsest, with each successive layer of belief and practice leaving its mark on the physical and spiritual geography of the land. From the Iron Age through the Roman period and into the Christian era, the sacred sites of Britain have evolved, reflecting the dynamic interplay between continuity and change in religious expression. This evolution is a testament to the adaptability of spiritual traditions and the enduring human desire to connect with the divine through the fabric of the familiar world. The incorporation of older religious elements into Christian worship demonstrates the complex and often subtle ways in which religions interact and influence each other over time.

Karl Raimund CELTIC RELIGION – WHAT INFORMATION DO WE REALLY HAVE

Contact Us
close slider

    What is 5 + 5 ?