Sep 24

Background – The Celts

The Celts

History

The Celts (Greek ‘Keltoi’) were an Indo-European people originating in the Alps. Their first known territory was in Central Europe around 1200 BC in the upper Danube, the Alps and parts of France and southern Germany. The Celtic culture spread from its heartland around the Rhine and Danube, reaching Spain and Portugal in the C6th BC and dominating central and Western Europe as well as Galatia in modern Turkey from the C5th BC onwards.

In the next three centuries, they also reached Britain, northern Italy, Greece, the Balkans and Asia Minor. From discoveries of Chinese silk and items of Greek and Italian workmanship in their burials, it is clear that the Celts had a wide network of commercial contacts. Their leaders lived in hill-forts and made many raids on the Mediterranean lands, attacking Rome in 390 BC. The Celtic Iron Age is generally divided into two periods, the Hallstadt (C9th to 5th BC) and La Tène (after 450 BC), named after archaeological sites in Austria and Switzerland. Their characteristic style of decoration, ‘Celtic Art’, spread throughout western and Central Europe, including the British Isles, where it was still being used by the time of the illuminated gospels in the early Middle Ages. They also produced iron, which gave them an advantage over those peoples who had only bronze weapons and tools.

Under the influences of both overcrowding (Milan was traditionally founded by the nephew of a Celtic king banished to alleviate this problem) and the rapid extension of the Roman Empire, migration continued. Control of Celtic lands, even the kingdom of Galatia, passed to the Romans as their Empire spread beyond Italy. The Celtic peoples became incorporated into it with the Mediterranean area of Gaul or Gallia (modern France), becoming a Roman province by the end of the C2nd BC. In Britain, the Belgae, a people of mixed Germanic and Celtic stock, became partially Romanized in the century between the first Roman invasion under Julius Caesar in 54 BC and the Roman conquest of AD 43.

They now mostly inhabit the Western seaboard of the British Isles, with traces of their languages remaining in Manx, Cornish, Breton and English as well as Scottish and Irish Gaelic and Welsh. They were recognised and described as possessing wealth, skills and culture by Ancient authors but never wrote down any of their laws, customs or beliefs. The oral tradition of storytelling was strong, however, and survived particularly well in Ireland, which was never part of the Roman Empire.

Sep 24

Roman References

Roman References

Ninth Legion activity in England

Cerialis and Agricola – Roman political background to the conquest of the Brigantes

Maps of Roman forts covering Southern and Northern Britain, Wales and Scotland.

Maps of Hadrians Wall, Antonine Wall and Gask Ridge

Maps of North and South Gaul.

The Roman army in Britain.

Gazeteer of Roman Military sites in Britain

Sep 24

Guide – Archaeological Terms

A lone researcher stands atop a hill in the Yorkshire Dales
A lone researcher stands atop a hill in the Yorkshire Dales

Glossary of Archaeological Terms

Acheulian

Later stages of Lower Palaeolithic culture defined by their particularly fine hand axes.

Aeolian

Deposited by action of wind.

Antonine Wall

Built during the early 140s AD. Northernmost Roman wall in Great Britain marked the edge of the territory of Hadrian’s successor, Antonius Pius,

Archaeomagnetic dating

Dating method for fireplaces or burned earth. area using the earth’s magnetic field, Heat aligns the iron inthe soul or brick to magnetic north at time of heating (but only if it is very hot).The pole has moves over time so comparing the alignment of the iron to current magnetic north North Pole allows us to work out a date.

Artifact

A manufactured object.

Assemblage

A collection of artifacts from a signle time or deposit.

Attic

From the area around Athens (Attica).

Avebury

Built around 2,500 B.C. Massive Late Neolithic stone circle in Wiltshire. Definitely worth a visit. For lots of information we recommend you read “Hengeworld” by Mike Pitts.

Beaker People

from the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze age (4000-2000 BC), named after their pottery. Styles of pottery known as funnel-beaker, protruding-foot beaker, and bell beaker.

Blade

A flake of flint or other material used for cutting.

Border Cave, South Africa

One of the earliest modern human sites on the planet, this rockshelter in the Lembombo Mountains was found by Louis Leakey(?) to contain Homo sapiens skeletons dated around 70,000 years old.

Bulb of percussion

When striking a lump of flint to break a flake from the core, a bulb is often produced by the compression forces involved. The existence of a percussion bulb is one of the first things to look for when determining whether a found stone has been worked by people.

Carbon Dation (also Radiocarbon Dating)

When an organism dies, the amount of Carbon14 within it begins to decay at a half life rate of 5730 years; Comparing the amount of C14 in a dead organism to current levels in the atmosphere, gives an estimate of when that organism died.

Chronometric Dating

Dating which provides an estimate of actual age.

Chert

Rock similar to flint. It can be knapped but is mostly of lower quality. Chert is usually found in shades of white, pink, brown and grey. Lots of Chert found in the Lower Thames valley

Cists

Boxed burials (eg: some of the Neolithic graves at El Garcel, Almeria, Spain) are refered to as Cists burials. The term simply comes from the German word ‘Kiste’ meaning a box or crate.

Component

A collection of artifacts from a site manufactured during a single phase of occupation.

Dendrochronology

Dating method using tree rings. Annual weather conditions lead to different amounts of tree growth every year and this is reflected in the depth of the tree rings.

Egypt

Archaeology doesn’t get any better.

Feature

Something such as a fireplace, wall, well, or similar that can’t just be dug out of the earth like a coin or pot.

Grims Ditch or Grims Dyke

Grim is another name for the devil and deep ditches in the british landscape are often attriubuted to him.

Glastonbury Lake Village

Beautifully preserved Iron Age occupation in the Somerset Levels, UK. Museum exhibition in Glastonbury town centre also worth a look.

Hominids

The group of humans and our close ancestors and related species. These include Neanderthals, Australopithicenes, and others. (Basically if the Latin name starts with an “H” its a hominid).

The Ice Man

Found high in the Tyrolean Alps in 1991, a Bronze Age hunter who died around 3350-3300 BC, and was preserved with his belongings by the ice. Latest info suggests he might have died as a result of an arrow wound rather than from exposure. He is sometimes referred to by his nickname “Otzi”.

Insula

Roman equivalent of a City Block (PL. Insulae)

Jomon People

Named after a site in Japan (dated around 13000-2500 Before Present), the Jomon culture is currently credited with the invention of pottery, some 12,000 years ago.

Knapping

The process of shaping stone (commonly flint, chert or obsidian) to produce tools. Modern knappers have also been known to use the thick bases of Coca-Cola bottles!

Mean

Arithmetical average. The sum of a series divided by the number of items in that series.

Median

The middle number in a series of numbers arranged in order of magnitude.

Midden

A rubbish heap or pit which is high in organic remains (like ‘kitchen middens’ or ‘shell middens’).

Microlith

A very small flake of stone (often flint) which was deliberately removed from a ‘core’ and then used as a tool. Since microliths are often just a centimetre or two long, they were probably hafted onto a wooden handle. The Mesolithic period in Britain (12,000 to 4,000 years ago) is particularly associated with microliths.

Newgrange

Irish passage tomb of great beauty, built about 3200 BC and re-discovered in 1699

Palaeolithic

Otherwise known as the ‘Old Stone Age’. This is the time period from about three and a half million years ago until the end of the last ice-age (approximately 12,000 years ago).

Pressure-flaking

The removal of small flakes by applying controlled pressure with a pointed tool, such as a deer antler tine.

Radiocarbon Dating

A method to ascertain the actual age of an organic object (bone, charcoal, seeds, etc) based on the relative ratios of carbon 14 to non-radioactive isotopes of carbon at the time of the analysis.

Relative Dating

Dating an artifact, site or layer as older or younger than something else, rather than absolute dating (eg “this pot was made in 4004BCE”)

Retoucher

A small tool (such as that found on the body of Otzi the iceman) made especially for pressure flaking flint and chert tools. In the iceman’s case, his retoucher was at first mistaken for the stub of a pencil.

Rock Shelter

A small cave or overhang of rock which afforded some degree of protection from the elements either as a permanent camp or temporary location of activity.

Seriation

The ordering of artifact types or styles in time based on popularity (the frequency that they occur over a given period of time or in a particular assemblage of artifacts) or mere presence.

Shell Midden

An archaeological accumulation of shells such as those found on the Hebridean islands.

Silchester

Romano-British town in Northern Hampshire south of modern Reading. Site of long-term dig by Reading University Archaeology Department.

Site

A place where archaeologists hang out.

Slip

Liquid clay which is painted onto pottery before it is fired to add decoration and to make porous pottery more water resistant.

Tang

A projection from a tool form used for hafting (attaching to a handle).

Thomsen, Christian Jurgen

Pioneering Nineteenth Century Danish archaeologist. Thomson organized his exhibitions at the National Museum in Copenhagen on the basis of three ages: the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. His scheme is still used today.

Taphonomy

The processes of movement which affect bones after deposition such as scavenging by animals.

Typology

A way of organising artifacts based on the shared characteristics like shape size and material.

Wattle and Daub

Walls built by building a framework of interlaced twigs or thin split branches (the wattle) which was then daubed with clay or excrement and horsehair to form a surprisingly effective wall. The wattle rarely survives in the ground but the imprint of the latticework of sticks can be seen in the clay daub.

Sep 24

Technical Terms

Glossary of Technical Terms

antefix a specially shaped imbrex fixed at the roof edge which presented a ‘face’,often with a moulded decoration, to the observer on the ground barnacle bit a toothed bit used for curbing horses.

Barcariorum: The name of a unit that indicates they used barcae, 3rd century lighters or barges, possibly used for military actions in inshore waters as well as for logistical support.

Batavorum: Indicates a unit raised from the inhabitants of present-day Netherlands, such units were renowned for their river crossing capabilities.

Bracaraugustanorum: Indicates a unit raised from the Bracares, inhabitants of present-day north west Spain, the name comes from that of the tribal capital Bracara Augusta.

campaign camp a camp enclosed by a ditch and bank in which the Roman army. pitched their tents when on field duties

Canabae: A settlement that grew-up outside a legionary fortress, see also vicus.

carrot amphora a small wine container in the shape of a carrot, used in the mid-first century.

Civium Romanorum: Auxiliary units could be granted block citizenship for achievements on the battle field, the title would remain even though the grant of citizenship was only to those troops serving at the time; the title was also used for a small number of auxiliary units raised originally from citizens

Classis: The fleet, the name was accompanied by a geographical name, thus Classis Britannica and Classis Germanica; the fleets had an important logistical role

Claudian the period of the Emperor Claudius (AD 41—54).

Claudian imitation a copy of one of the bronze issues of Claudius, probably struck by the army during a shortage of coins (C.H.V. Sutherland, Coinage and Currency in Roman Britain, 1937, 8-13).

Clavicula: Curved extension of camp defences to protect entrances usually only of temporary camps, see titulum.

Contubernium: A tent for eight soldiers, later also the name for a room in barrack blocks also housing eight men.

Chlamys a long wool scarf draped over the shoulder or wrapped round the arm, used to indicate high rank.

currency bar a long strip of wrought iron used by some of the southern British tribes. It was really a rough-out for a sword and could have been beaten into one, (D.F. Alien in 0 5 Map of Southern Britain in the Iron Age, 1962, Map 8).

Dacorum: In a unit’s name indicates it was raised in Dacia, present-day Romania.

Decumana, via: The road running from the centre to the rear of a fort or camp.

Delmatorum: In a unit’s name indicates it was raised in Dalmatia.

Dere Street: The post-Roman name for the road north from Corbridge to the Firth of Forth, the modern A68.

Equestrian: The social group after the Senatorial class in seniority, the “landed gentry” of the Empire, in the early Empire eligible for the post of Praefect (commander) of auxiliary regiments; following Diocletian’s separation of the military and civil careers and his banning of senators from military positions, equestrians became eligible for all army commands.

Exploratum: Units of scouts or reconnaissance troops in Britain primarily associated with the outpost forts on Hadrian’s Wall.

finial an ornament projecting vertically usually from a roof, but also in pottery.

Flavian the period of the Flavian emperors, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian (AD 69-96).

fort the word used for a permanent Roman establishment of up to about eight acres, normally for an auxiliary unit.

Fortlet: Base for part of an auxiliary unit, usually less than 1 ha in size, distinguished from forts by lacking a principia.

fortress the word used for a permanent legionary establishment.

Fosse Way: The post-Roman name for the road from Exeter to Lincoln.

Frisiorum: Indicates a unit raised from the Frisii, inhabitants of present-day Netherlands.

Glen blocking forts: A group of forts in Scotland at the head of glens reaching into the Highland massif (for example Bochastle, Central Region) sometimes also known as Highland line forts.

Hamiorum: Indicates a unit raised from the Hamii, inhabitants of present-day Syria, renowned for their archery skills and unlike other units may have continued to recruit from Syria.

Hiberna: A winter base for troops on campaign, found in Britain during the early 1st century, before permanent forts and fortresses were built, some of the sites known in Britain as vexillation fortresses may have been hiberna, see aestiva.

Highland line forts: A group of forts in Scotland that are close to the edge of the Highland massif (for example Bochastle, Central Region) sometimes also known as Glen Blocking forts.

hill-fort a banked or ditched enclosure of pre-Roman times usually on a hill, following the contours.

intaglio a carved design on a gemstone or moulded on paste, usually for a ring.

Legate: Commander of a legion, drawn from the senatorial class, eligible after successful completion of this and other posts in strict order, for selection as governor of a province; Cerialis and Agricola both commanded legions in Britain before becoming governors of the province; Vespasian, legate of Legio II Augusta during the conquest, made a successful bid to be Emperor in 69 AD.

Lingonum: In a unit’s name indicates it was raised in Upper Germany.

melon bead a small ribbed blue glass bead commonly used as an amulet in the first century, especially by soldiers.

millefiore a kind of decorated glass made by fusing together many small glass rods of different colours used in glass vessels, brooches and buckles.

Milliaria: A cohort or ala of close to 1,000 men, exact numbers differ depending on the type of unit (see Quingenaria).

mortarium a pottery bowl with a large rim and pouring spout, used in the kitchen for pulverising vegetables etc. in food preparation. The interior surface is usually studded with small grits.

motte and bailey a castle of the late Saxon and Norman periods which consisted of a conical mound surrounded by a ditch, making a strong defence position, beyond which was a ditched enclosure known as the bailey where buildings were erected.

Names, Roman: From the end of the 1st century citizens had three parts to their names – praenomen, nomen and cognomen for example Marcus Ulpia Traianus, the Emperor more commonly known in English as Trajan.

Nervia: In a unit’s name indicates it was raised by the Emperor Nerva.

Nerviorum: Indicates a unit raised from the Nervii, inhabitants of present-day Belgium.

niello a black coloured inlay applied to bronzes.

Notitia Dignitatum: A record of official posts (civil and military) from the end of the 4th century or early 5th.

Pannoniorum: Indicates a unit raised from Pannonia, present-day Hungary.

Praetorian Guard: The Emperor’s Household troops, abolished by Constantine; see also Urban Cohorts.

Praetoria, via: The road running from the front to the centre of a fort, fortress or camp.

Praetentura: the front part of the interior of a fort, fortress or camp (see Retentura).

Principalis, via: The road running from side to side across a fort, fortress or camp.

Principia: The headquarters building in a fortress or fort.

Punic ditch a military ditch with a vertical outer face and a sloping inner one which made it appear easy to cross, but difficult to negotiate when retreating.

Quingenaria: A cohort or ala of close to 500 men in strength, exact numbers differed depending on the type of unit (see Milliaria).

Raetorum: Indicates a unit raised from Raetia including present-day Bavaria and the Tyrol.

Retentura: The rear of a the interior of fort, fortress or camp (see Praetentura).

samian a red slip pottery made mainly in Gaul, both in plain and decorated forms, widely exported to Britain in the first two centuries.

Sarmatarum: Indicates a unit raised from the Sarmartians captured during Marcus Aurelius’s campaigns in the present-day Czech and Slovak Republics in the second half of the 2nd century.

schutthiigel a rubbish tip shot over the edge of a cliff. The classic example is at Vindonissa, a legionary fortress on the R. Aare in Switzerland (for a study of the pottery recovered from it see E. Ettlinger and C. Simonett, ‘Romische Keramik aus dem Schutthiigel von Vindonissa’, Verb f fentlichungen der Ge sell schaft pro Vindonissa, Band III, 1952).

Senators: The foremost groups of Roman citizens, eligible to command legions (legate) and to govern provinces.

Singulares: Guards, cavalry and infantry, for the Emperor and provincial governors.

Staingate: The post-Roman name for the road across Britain from the Tyne to the Solway.

Thracum: Indicates a unit raised from Thrace mainly present-day Bulgaria.

Tigrisensium: In a unit’s name indicates previous service on the River Tigris.

Titulum: A stretch of ditch some distance in front of a gateway to give protection to the gateway usually only of temporary camps, see clavicula.

Torquata: A title awarded to units rather than individuals for achievements on the battle field, the torque would appear on the unit’s standard.

Tres militiae: The military career path of an equestrian – commander (praefect) of an auxiliary cohort; legionary tribune; praefect of an ala.

Tribune: One of the six senior officers after the legate of a legion; one, the second in command, was the tribunus laticlavius from the senatorial classes starting his career, the other five from the equestrian classes and in mid career, see tres militiae.

Turma: A sub unit of a cavalry unit, Ala or Cohors Equitata, 32 men.

Tungrorum: Indicates a unit raised from the Tungri, inhabitants of present-day Belgium.

triskele a Celtic form of decoration in the shape of three ‘legs’ radiating from a centre.

Urban Cohorts: Five cohorts based in and around Rome, from the Flavian period the number in Italy is reduced to four with one in Carthage and another at Lyons.

Ulpia: The family name of the Emperor Trajan, in a unit’s name indicates it was raised or honoured by this Emperor.

Vardullorum: Indicates a unit raised from the Vardulli, inhabitants of present-day Spain.

Vasconum: Indicates a unit raised from the Vascones, inhabitants of present-day northern Spain.

Vettonum: Indicates a unit raised from the Vettones, inhabitants of present-day central Spain.

Vexillatio: A detachment of legionary or auxiliary troops operating away from their home commands; in the later Empire a name for an infantry regiment.

vexillation fort a term suggested by Professor Frere (Britannia 1967, 71) for forts of 20-30 acres, which, it has been assumed, were occupied by a vexillation or detachment of different units, probalby including one from a legion. M may include aestiva and hiberna as well as longer-term bases for parts or whole legions in the less settled conditions of the early conquest of Britain, before the fortresses that were built under Nero and the Flavians.

Vicus: A settlement that grew-up outside auxiliary fort, see also canabae

Sep 24

Latin (Roman) Terms

Glossary of Latin (Roman) terms

ala a cavalry unit usually at this period about 500 strong divided into squadrons(turmae) and commanded by a praefectus.

amphora a large pottery container for transporting commodities wine, oil, fish sauce (garum) etc. to distant parts of the empire. It became a unit of liquid measure.

aquila the eagle standard of the legions, considered to be a symbol of the legion and was in consequence its most precious possession; normally kept in the sacellum of the principia.

as a copper coin of the first and second century, equivalent to half a dupondius

which was made of a ‘brass’ alloy.

auxilia the general term for the Roman allies who provided troops for the army to assist the legions. Satisfactory service led to citizenship on discharge.

ballista a spring-gun of which there were several kinds and sizes used normally by legionaries. The small gun (carro-ballista) was mounted on a cart, was provided for each century and operated by ten men.

burgus a small fortified post usually controlling a main road

centuria the smallest operational unit in a legion and auxiliary cohort consisting of 80 men commanded by a centurion and divided into eight contubemia (mess or tent parties).

civitas a tribe and its territory.

civium romanorum title on receiving the award of Roman citizenship; when given

to auxiliary units as a reward for outstanding services, it is denoted by the letters C R as part of the unit’s title.

Classis Britannica the fleet based on Britannia.

clientela the client-patron relationship, whereby the clients owed allegiance to a patron who in turn undertook responsibility for them.

cognomen the third name of the tria nomina of a citizen, usually peculiar to the individual.

cohors a military unit of about 500 men when it was known as quingenaria. Those

1000 strong were milliarii.

cohors equitata a part-mounted auxiliary unit.

colonia a settlement of retired army veterans who were usually given land

allotments.

comites literally ‘companions’, but used here as members of the imperial retinue of Claudius.

consilium a council or assembly of leaders.

corona civica the civic crown of oak leaves awarded to soldiers for saving the life of a citizen.

cos ord the title of the two senior magistrates of Rome who entered office on the 1st January, giving their names to the year.

cos suff the title of the pairs of magistrates who became consuls after the consulares ordinarii, and usually holding office for three months.

curator aquarum the title of the senator in charge of the Roman water supply,

normally it was a pro-consular appointment.

cursus honorum the steps in promotion open to a member of the senatorial class.

denarius the silver Roman coin, 25 of which were equivalent to the gold aureus.

dolabra an iron tool with a pick at one end and hoe-like blade at the other, carried by legionaries and used for digging ditches.

duplicarius a junior commander in an auxiliary ala in charge of a turma, and so-

called as he was given double pay.

evocatus a soldier, often a praetorian, who continued to serve after his normal

period of service.

fasces a bundle of rods bound round an axe, which became a symbol of law and

authority and carried by lictors before a consul and magistrates.

gemina a title given to a legion when it was created by splitting one into two, as with Legio XIV Gem.

gladius the short thrusting sword used by legionaries.

hiberna winter quarters where units spend the winter ‘under canvas’.

insignia triumphalia the special toga, sceptre and wreath worn at a triumph.

legatus a man to whom the Emperor delegated responsibility, as with legionary

commanders and provincial governors.

legatus legionis the commander of a legion.

legio a legion comprising Roman citizens and consisting of 10 cohorts, nine of

which were quingenary (i.e. 500 strong) and the first, probably from the Flavian

period, milliary (i.e. 1000 strong).

limes originally a dividing path between fields, but later a name given to a frontier zone.

lorica segmentata a cuirass made of horizontal strips of steel, held together by

vertical leather bands, worn by legionaries.

macellum a market-place, often for one kind of goods, such as meat or fish.

miles a soldier; sometimes the qualifying gregarius is used with it to indicate the common soldier or private.

murus gallicus a term used for an early type of Iron Age rampart which was laced

with horizontal timbers.

nemeton a Celtic word for a shrine or temple appears as a place-name, such as

Aquae Arnemetiae.

nuntius a despatch rider.

oppidum the Latin word for any native settlement, but it has usually been

restricted by British archaeologists to an area protected by Gallo-Belgic dykes, as at Camulodunum.

ornamenta triumphalia insignia and awards given to victorious commanders and

consuls, instead of a triumph, in imperial times.

ovatio a triumph of lesser degree than the triumphus itself, which was reserved for Emperors, the last person to receive the ovatio who was not a member of the Imperial family was Aulus Plautius (Suet. Claudius, 24).

pabulor to forage, hence used for military forage parties (Caes Bell. Civ.i 59; pi. 4).

paludamentum the cloak worn by commanders and senior officers to distinguish

them from the sagum of the ordinary soldier.

pax Romana the peace imposed and held by Rome.

pilum the javelin used by legionaries. It was seven feet long mostly consisting of a wood shaft. The iron shank was left flexible but the pyramidal point was hardened.

piscina an ornamental pool usually surrounded by colonnaded walks, as dis-

tinguished from a natatio i.e. a swimming pool.

polls the Greek word for a city used by Ptolemy for native settlements (Rivet and Smith, 105).

praefectus a commander of an auxiliary unit at this period.

praefectus equitatus a man with an unusual command of a force of cavalry as may

have been given to Didius Gallus by Claudius in the invasion of Britain (J LS 970; Epig.Stud. 4 (1967) 65).

praefectus fabrorum an officer in charge of ordnance and workshops.

praetentura that part of a fort or fortress in front of the principia and which is bisected by the via praetoria.

praetorium the house of the commanding officer, normally adjacent to the

principia.

primus pilus literally ‘first javelin’, was the chief centurion of a legion, an office held for a year, after which he became an equestrian and he could enter a higher career structure as one of the primipilares (see Brian Dobson Die Primpilares: Entwicklung und Bedeutung, Laufbahnen und Personlichkeiten eines romischen Offiziersranges 1978).

principia the headquarters building in a fort or fortress and occupying the central position.

quinquennium a five-year period.

retentura that part of a fort or fortress to the rear of the principia.

sesterius a large bronze or ‘brass’ coin equivalent to 4 asses or a quarter of a silver denarius.

spolium literally the skin of an animal but used for the armour stripped from a

defeated enemy and hence a general term (in the plural – spolia) for booty or spoils of war.

terra nigra pottery made in Gaul and imported into Britain in the Claudian-

Neronian period. It was mainly in the form of platters and dishes in a grey ware with a highly polished surface and usually stamped with the maker’s name. It was widely imitated in Britain.

terra rubra pottery made in Gaul and imported into Britain in the Claudian-

Neronian period. It was mainly in the form of cups and bowls in a red ware with a burnished finish and often stamped with the potter’s name.

testudo literally a ‘tortoise’, a technique developed by legionaries — a tight group holding their shields over their head to enable them to advance to a gateway or base of a wall with a battering ram (pi. 3).

tria nomina the three names ‘praenomen, nomen and cognomen’ normally adopted

by a Roman citizen.

triumvir monetalis one of those men in Republican and early Imperial times who

was responsible for the mint in Rome and whose names appear on denarii.

turma a squadron of 32 mounted men in a quingenary ala and probably of 30 in a

turma of a cohors equitata.

via principalis the street which crosses a fort or fortress in front of the principia.

 

 

 

Sep 24

Glossaries

Glossaries

Latin (Roman) Terms

Technical Terms

Archaeological Glossary

Sep 23

Trinovantes

The Trinovantes

Background to the Trinovantes

Location of the tribe
Essex and part of Suffolk.

Background information
It is possible that the Trinovantes were one of only two British tribes knew of Caesar’s intentions to cross the channel to Britain and so sent out ambassadors to the Romans in Gaul in an attempt to ensure they would be well treated should the Roman army invade and take over Britain.

Caesar
‘The Trinobantes, the strongest state, perhaps in those parts, sent deputies to Caesar, promising to surrender to him and to do his commands, and beseeching him to protect Mandubracius from outrage at the hands of Cassivellaunus, and to send him to their state as ruler and sovereign lord.’

Mandubracius was the exiled king of the Trinobantes. His father (name unknown) had been killed by Cassivellaunus, and the Trinovantian prince forced to flee to the continent and the protection of Caesar.

Shortly after the Atrebates tribe were taken into his protection, Caesar defeated the army of Cassivellaunus near Wheathamstead. Seeing all was lost, their ruler, Cassivellaunus surrendered, trusting to the mercy of Caesar.

Caesar waited until all of the British hostages had been delivered to him in Kent, then moved his forces back to the continent where they spent the winter of 54-53BC. Prior to departing, he issued a stern warning to the Catuvellauni

Caesar
He (Caesar) straitly charged Cassivellaunus to do no hurt to Mandubracius or the Trinobantes.’

Julius Caesar never returned to Britain, and the Romans did not come again in force until the invasion of 43AD. But the fear he had instilled into the Catuvellauni assured the Trinovantes there would be no trouble from their neighbours.

When the Roman general Varus lost three legions in the German Teutoberger forest in AD9, it inspired Cunobelin of the Catuvellauni took the opportunity to attack and capture the Trinovantian capital Camulodonum. The situation in Germania was serious, and Cunobelin had chosen his moment with care. The Romans were now heavily committed to defending their borders in Europe, so Britain was put on hold.

The Trinovantes and Boudicca
In 60AD, the Iceni under Queen Boudicca rose up in defiance of their Roman masters and began the rebellion that was to change Britain under the Romans. It is probable that the reasons for their joining the revolt was that because the Romans had not kept their word and forced the Catuvellauni back to their own territory. Also, they had not had their tribal lands returned to them after the defeat of Caratacus and the Catuvellauni. Coupled with the fact the Romans were taking vast amounts of land from in and around Camulodonum to build a Colonia for retired Roman soldiers, the Trinovantes were understandably sympathetic to the Iceni cause.

Tacitus
‘They flew to arms, and incited to rebellion the Trinobantes and others, who, not yet broken by servitude, had entered into a secret and treasonable compact to resume their independence.’
Principal towns and settlements in Trinovantes territory

Caesaromagus – (Widford, nr. Chelmsford, Essex) The Roman Civitas capital of the Trinovantes.

Camulodonum – (Colchester, Essex) – The original capital of the Trinovantes which was taken from they by the Catuvellauni in 9AD. Camulodonum was the site of the first Roman Legionary Fortress in Britain, and was later to become the first Roman colonia colonia in the province. It was this colonisation by the Romans that was a major contributing factor to the Boudiccan rebellion of 60AD..

Canonium – (Rivenhall, Essex) – Settlement.

Combretovium – (Baylham House, nr. Coddenham, Suffolk) – A minor settlement at an important road junction.

Long Melford (Suffolk) – Minor settlement and posting station.

Scole (Norfolk) – Posting station and minor settlement on the road north between Camulodunum and Venta Icenorum..

Sitomagus – (Dunwich, Suffolk) – Settlement, now below sea level.

Stoke Ash (Suffolk) – Posting station on the road north between Camulodunum and Venta Icenorum

Some of the Trinovantes kings and queens

Mandubracius Was regarded by Caesar as the most powerful of the British tribal monarchs. Little is known about him. His possible sucessor, Addedomaros who started his rule around 15BC,may have been his son or grandson, There are no recordings of this. Indeed, it is possible that Mandubracius was the last of his line. If he did not have any children of his own, it would explain why the kingship of the Trinovantes passed to the Addedomaros family. There appears to have been a power struggle in the Trinovantes higher order for the right to rule, with the Addedomaros being victorious. The Catuvellaunian king Tasciovanus later claimed the thone of the Trinovantes and the two tribes became opposing sides in a war won by the Trinovantes, which enabled the Addedomaros to hold the throne.

Addedomaros Was the known ruler of the Trinovantes to follow Mandubracius. Almost immediately after his took the throne, some time between 25 and 15BC, he moved his capital from Braughing ner Hertford to a new site on the east coast which he named Camulodunum which means ‘the fort of the war god Camulos’. .It is possible that the Trinovantes were taken over by the Catuvellauni as the coins of the period from about 15BC, had strong markings indicating Catuvellauni influences. He reigned for about ten years before being succeeded by his son Dubnovellaunus around 10-5BC.

Dubnovellaunus Succeeded Addedomaros to the Trinovantian throne about 10-5BC and ruled for several years before being overthrown by the Catuvellauni under the leadership of Cunobelin. He should not be confused with Dubnovellaunus of the Cantium.

Sep 23

Silures

Silures

Tacitus describes the Silures as a strong and warlike tribe, stubborn, with swarthy faces and curly hair. They inhabited the wooded uplands of southeastern Wales, living in hillforts and fortified settlements, and were Rome’s most determined opponents. That resistance was led by Caratacus, a British chieftan who had sought refuge with the Silures after his father’s tribal capital at Camulodunum was captured in the Claudian invasion of AD 43. After four years, Aulus Plautius, the first governor of Britannia, returned to a triumphal ovation in Rome. But there still was unrest. His successor, Ostorius Scapula, had only just arrived as governor (AD47-52) when there was an attack by hostile tribes from outside the borders of the new province.

Ostorius restored order and determined to disarm all the native tribes, even those who were nominal allies. This ill-advised policy prompted the Iceni to revolt, although they were defeated in their hillfort. Ostorius then advanced into Wales and had nearly reached the sea when, in AD 48, there was an uprising by the Brigantes, the largest tribe in Britain, and he was obliged to break off his campaign to quell the disturbance. “But neither sternness nor leniency prevented the Silures from fighting,” and in AD 49, Legio XX had to be moved forward from Camulodunum to a site near Glevum (Gloucester). Caratacus, in turn, retreated to the territory of the Ordovices deeper in the mountains of northern Wales. There, he prepared for a decisive battle, one “which would either win back their freedom or enslave them forever.” It was fought in AD 51. Caratacus was defeated and sought refuge with the Brigantes, but was given up to Rome.

He probably was one of the eleven British kings declared to have surrendered to Claudius on a triumphal arch dedicated to the emperor that year. Yet, the Romans may have been over confident. There was continued guerrilla warfare and widespread raids. Ostorius died the next year, worn out, says Tacitus, by the struggle. Before his successor could arrive, a legion was defeated by the Silures, who now were plundering the countryside. It was Rome’s greatest defeat in Britain.

Wales was continuing to be a problem.

Didius Gallus, the newly appointed governor (AD 52-57), managed to restore order and turned his attention to the support of Cartimandua in the war against her husband Venutius, “the best strategist,” says Tacitus, since Caratacus and now the leader of British resistance. Nero assumed the throne in AD 54 and, despite some thought of abandoning the province, was determined to conquer the Welsh. Suetonius Paullinus was appointed governor (AD 58-61) and presumably had subdued the southern part of the country and was attacking the Druid stronghold on the island sanctuary of Mona (Anglesey) in the north when, in AD 60, Prasutagus, king of the Iceni, died. The kingdom was forfeited to Rome, and Boudica, his wife, led her people in revolt. Paullinus rushed to Londinium to confront them, and Wales was reprieved.

The destruction of the Boudcian revolt was such that ten years passed before Rome resumed its policy of conquest. Then there came, in Tacitus’s words, “a succession of great generals and splendid armies.” The subjugation of Wales began in earnest with the governors appointed by Vespasian. The first was Petillius Cerialis (AD 71-74), who had nearly lost his life in the rebellion by Boudica. Julius Frontinus (AD 74-77) established a fortress at Isca (Caerleon) for Legio II Augusta in the territory of the Silures and later began the construction of another fortress at Chester in the north. It was Frontinus, according to the single sentence that Tacitus devotes to him, who “subdued by force of arms the strong and war-like nation of the Silures, laboriously triumphing not only over a brave enemy but also over difficult terrain.” What he did not accomplish was completed by Julius Agricola (AD 77-83/84), who had been a military tribune on the staff of Paullinus. In his first year as governor, Agricola defeated the Ordovices and forced the surrender of the island of Mona, when his auxiliaries swam across the strait with their horses in a surprise attack.

Even the Silures, the most famous of the Welsh tribes and the most tenacious of foes, were Romanized. Eventually, they became a self-governing community of non-citizens (civitate peregrina), and had their tribal capital at Caerwent (Venta Silurum) near the fortress at Isca.

It had taken Rome more than thirty years to subdue the Welsh.

Background to the Silures

Location of the tribe
The south east of Wales.

Background information
The tribal name Silures, may itself be one given to the tribes by the Romans. It Latin it means ‘the people of the rocks’, reflecting to the mountainous region in which they lived. The tribe’s people were noted for their aggresive, firey nature and their mass of thick, black curly hair.

Following the short-lived uprisings of the Iceni and the Brigantes in 47, the new governor of Britain, Ostorius Scapula, turned his attention to the Silures.

Legion XX Valeria was probably moved from Colchester to a new legionary fortress at Kingsholm near Gloucester, as the Silures were a volatile race who did not take kindly to the Romans and their incursions into Silures territory. The movement of the XX west left the eastern part of Britain weakened, so a Colonia of veteran soldiers was established at Camulodunum within the confines of the old fortress recently evacuated by the Twentieth Legion

Tacitus
‘Neither severity nor clemency converted the Silures tribe, which continued the struggle and had to be repressed by the establishment of a legionary camp.’

The reason for the Roman desire to invade and quell the Silures once and for all, was because Caratacus of the Catuvellauni had opposed the full invasion and fled to Wales after the defeat of his tribe.

Tacitus
‘The march then proceeded against the Silures, whose native boldness was heightened by their confidence in the prowess of Caratacus.’

Tacitus
‘On this occasion, favoured by the treacherous character of the country, though inferior in military strength, he (Caratacus) astutely shifted the seat of war to the territory of the Ordovices: where, after being joined by all who feared a Roman peace, he put the final chance to trial’

After his defeat in Wales, Caratacus escaped through the lands of the Deceangi in north-eastern Wales and had sought refuge amongst the Brigantes in northern England. Queen Cartimandua had already agreed a treaty with the Romans in return for being allowed to stay in power as a Client King. On arrival, Caratacus taken prsisoner and passed to the Roman governor, Ostorius. For his part in the capture of the renegade British king, Scapula was awarded the Triumphal insignia, which had in the time of the emperors, replaced the Triumphal procession through the streets of Rome, which was the accepted celebration in the earlier Roman republic.

This was not the end of the Silures, as they continued to show their agression to the next three governors of Britain. The first governor was Aulus Didius Gallus who ruled Britain from 52-57AD. His inititaion into the Silures way of life was immediate.

Tacitus
‘On recieving news of the legate’s death, the Caesar, not to leave the province without a governor, appointed Aulus Didius to the vacancy. In spite of a rapid crossing, he found matters deteriorated, as the legion³ under Manlius Valens had been defeated in the interval. In this case, again, the loss had been inflicted by the Silures, and they carried their forays far and wide, until repelled by the advent of Didius’

Gallus was drawn away from the matters of the Silures by an uprising among the Brigantes.. The Briganties monarchy was in turmoil, and as a client of Rome, Queen Cartimandua called upon the Romas to support her cause in the civil war between her own clan and those loyal to her estranged husband, Venutius, who were unhappy with the Queen’s earlier betrayal of Caratacus.

The rule of Gallus was marked by unrest and disorder until he was replaced in 60 AD.

Tacitus
‘Veranius, after harrying the Silures in a few raids of no great significance, was prevented by death from carrying his arms further.’

The Silures could now live with a lessened fear of the Romans, as there was a more pressing matter to attend to. The Boudiccan rebellion.befell the next governor, Suetonius Paulinus. He may well have made prior plans to completely vanquish the Silures and so end their constant nagging war with the Romans. It was not until the arrival of anothe rgovernpr, Julius Frontinus that the Silures finally succumbed the superior might of the Romans in 76AD.

Tacitus
‘Julius Frontinus was, so far as a subject of the emperor could be, a great man, and he shouldered and sustained the burden cast on him: his arms reduced the Silures, a powerful and warlike race; he surmounted not only the valour of the enemy but also the physical difficulties of their land.’

Principal towns and settlements in Silures territory

Venta Silurum – (Caerwent, Gwent)

Other settlements
Blestium – (Monmouth) – Mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary, was probably a fort established in the centre of the iron mining district.

Burrium – (Usk, Gwent) – The only settlement attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy, where it appears as Bullaeum. There was a large fortress here, which was no-doubt accompanied by a settlement.

Cardiff – (Glamorgan) – A settlement outside the Roman fort.

Isca – (Caerleon, Gwent) – A very large settlement was attached to the fortress of the Second Legion.

Llanmelin Wood – (Gwent) – Iron Age camp just north of Venta, may have been the pre-Roman tribal capital of the Silures.

Machen – (Gwent) – Settlement associated with the nearby lead mines under military control.

Redwick – (Gwent) – A small settlement on the Severn estuary, SE of Caerwent.

Sep 23

Parisii

The Parisi

Background to the Parisi

Location of the tribe
North and East Yorkshire

Background information
The Parisi were originally immigrants from Gaul, which is why their share their name with the tribe that occupied modern day France. As can be gathered from their name, they gave the French capital it’s name.

Principal towns and settlements in Parisi territory

Petvaria – (Brough on Humber, Humberside) – The suspected Civitas capital, and the only polis ascribed to the tribe by Ptolemy, its official status was only that of a vicus.

Other Settlements
Delgovicia? – (Millington, Humberside) – Minor settlement included a temple.

Derventio – (Malton, North Yorkshire) – Roman fort with attached minor settlement or vicus.

North Ferriby – nearby Brough, was the site of an old Celtic settlement, and the northern terminus of a ferry over the Humber estuary to South Ferriby, in the territories of the Coritani.

Rudston – (Humberside) – Villa with crude but effective mozaics, on the road to the east coast near Bridlington.

Sep 23

Ordovices

The Ordovices

Background to the Ordovices

Location of the tribe
Central Wales from the coast to the Englsih border. This area is now known as Gwynedd and south Clwyd

Background information
The Ordovices had no self-government and wre not awarded their own Civitas capital by the Romans. During the reign of Agricola, the Ordovices were rule directly from Londinium (London) rather that through a Client King. .

Most of the tribe lived either in the hillforts of which there is archaeological evidence that there were many in existence., or in the immediate surrounding area. This would have enabled the dwellers outside these forts an easy retreat in times of incursion.

Frontinus established several garrison forts in Ordovice territory following his defeat of the the Silures of South Wales

Immediately before Agricola, the Ordovices almost wiped out a regiment of Roman cavalry stationed in their territory. Shortly after his arrival in Britain, Agricola took the XX Legion into north Wales, massacred the Ordovices and conquered the stronghold of the Druids on Mona in a single psuh late in the campaign season of 78AD. The outcome of this Agricola’s campaign was a near total wipeout of the Ordovices, and they did not recover until the third century AD.

Principal towns and settlements in Ordovices territory

Mona – (Anglesey Island, Gwynedd) – Probable Civitas capital.

Brithdir- (Gwynedd) – Minor Settlement.

Caer Gai – (Gwynedd) – Minor settlement and fort.

Caersws – (Powys) – Possible southern border settlement and fort.

Llanfor – (Gwynedd) – Fort.

Llwyn y Brain – (Powys) – Southern Border Fort nearby Caersws.

Magnola – (Pennal, Gwynedd) – Probable southern border settlement and fort.

Segontium – (Caernarfon, Gwynedd) – Settlement and fort.

Tomen y Mur (Gwynedd) – Fort.

 

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