Sep 23

Baal

Baal, Baalim

BAAL WORSHIP

But the religious customs of the Covenant people became corrupted with the religion of the Phoenician Canaanites. The Prophet Elijah’s challenge of the Hebrew priests of Baal is one of the most moving Bible accounts. (I Ki.18:18-40) The Bible indicates that at one time the majority of Hebrew priests and people followed the rituals of Baal worship. Noted 19th century antiquarian, Sir William Betham, made an exhaustive study of the ancient Celtic peoples, and states in his book, The Gael and Cimbri, “Baal… has the precise meaning in Gaelic as in Phoenician — the lord of heaven.” (p. 226) Many customs hearken back to Palestine, as well; “even the cakes which the idolatrous Jews, in imitation of the Phoenicians, made in honour of the queen of heaven are still the most popular cake in Ireland under the old name of the barn-brack, or speckled cake.” (p. 236) Ancient customs and rituals are persistent among mankind, and therefore provide tangible evidence of a people’s origins, even where no written proof survives. Betham comments, “Thus we see at this day, fires lighted up in Ireland, on the eve of the summer solstice and the equinoxes, to the Phoenician god, Baal, and even called Baal’s fire, baaltinnes, though the object of veneration be forgotten…” (p. 222-223) In addition, archaeological proof points to a Hebrew-Phoenician origin of the Britons and Irish. Betham relates, “On an altar-stone, dug up near Kirby Thore, in Westmorland, is this inscription:”

“DEO BEL ATUCADRO LIB[ERUM] VOTUM. FECIT IOLUS.”

The text translates as follows: “To the god Baal, the friend of man, Iolus made his free vow.”

Numerous other stone altars to Phoenician gods, which have been discovered in Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, are discussed and translated in Betham’s work. Some of the principal finds include altar-stones found in Northumbria and other parts of Britain. He states that these ancient monuments to “Baal, by the ancient British… are unanswerable evidences of the identity of the people of the two islands {i.e., Britain and Ireland] and Gaul, which the most unwilling and incredulous caviler at etymologies, can scarcely refuse to receive as conclusive. It proves more, for it shows an identity of the deities of the Celtae and the [Hebrew]-Phoenicians…” (p. 228-229)

Numerous other parallels exist between Celtic and Hebrew-Canaanite worship, including mystic well-worship, worship of sacred stones, and the veneration of the autumnal equinoxes. In fact, both the Canaanites and Celts practiced autumnal sacrifices to Baal, which the Celts called, “Baal-tinnes,” as previously mentioned.

(Hebrew Bá’ál; plural, Be`alîm.)

https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02175a.htm

A word which belongs to the oldest stock of the Semite vocabulary and primarily means “lord”, “owner”. So in Hebrew, a man is styled baal of a house (Ex., xxii, 7: Judges, xix, 22), of a field (Job, xxi, 39), of cattle (Ex., xxi, 28; Isa., i, 3) of wealth (Eccles, v, 12), even of a wife (Ex, xxi, 3; cf. Gen., iii, 16). The women’s position in the Oriental home explains why she is never called Bá`alah of her husband). So also we read of a ram, “baal” of two horns (Dan, viii, 6, 20), of a baal of two wings (i.e. fowl: Eccles., x, 20). Joseph was scornfully termed by his brother a baal of dreams (Gen., xxxvii, 19). And so on. (See IV Kings, i, 8: Isa., xli, 15; Gen., xlix, 23; Ex., xxiv, 14, etc.) Inscriptions afford scores of evidence of the word being similarly used in the other Semitic languages. In the Hebrew Bible, the plural, be`alîm, is found with the various meanings of the singular; whereas in ancient and modern translations it is used only as a referring deities. It has been asserted by several commentators that by baalim the emblems or images of Baal (hámmanîm, máççebhôth, etc.) should be understood. This view is hardly supported by the texts, which regularly points out, sometimes contemptuously, the local or other special Baals.

BAAL AS A DEITY

When applied to a deity, the word Baal retained its connotation of ownership, and was, therefore, usually qualified. The documents speak, for instance, of the Baal of Tyre, of Harran, of Tarsus, of Herman, of Lebanon of Tamar (a river south of Beirut), of heaven. Moreover, several Baals enjoyed special attributions: there was a Baal of the Covenant (Bá`ál Berîth (Judges, viii, 33; ix 4); cf. ‘El Berîth (ibid., ix, 46}; one of the flies (Bá`ál Zebub, IV Kings, i, 2, 3, 6, 16,); there also probably was one of dance (Bá`ál Márqôd); perhaps one of medicine (Bá`ál Márphê), and so on. Among all the Semites, the word, under one form or another (Bá`ál in the West and South; Bel in Assyria; Bal, Bol, or Bel im Palmyra) constantly recurs to express the deity’s lordship over the world or some part of it. Not were all the Baals — of different tribes, places, sanctuaries — necessarily conceived as identical; each one might have his own nature and his own name; the partly fish shaped Baal of Arvad was probably Dagon; the Baal of Lebanon, possible Cid “the hunter”; the Baal of Harran, the moongod; whereas in several Sabean Minaean cities, and in many Chanaanite, Phoenician, or Palmyrene shrines, the sun was the Baal worshipped, although Hadad seems to have been the chief Baal among the Syrians. The diversity of the Old Testament intimates by speaking of Baalim, in the plural, and specifying the singular Baal either by the article or by the addition of another word.

What the original conception was is most obscure. According to W.R. Smith, the Baal is a local God who, by fertilizing his own district through springs and streams, becomes its lawful owner. Good authorities, nevertheless, oppose this view, and reversing the above argument, hold that the Baal is the genius-lord of the place and of all the elements that cause its fecundity; it is he who gives “bread, water, wool, flax, oil, and drink” (Os, ii, 5; in the Hebr. text 7); he is the male principle of life and reproduction in nature, and such is sometimes honoured by acts of the foulest sensuality. Whether or not this idea sprang from, and led to the monotheistic conception of supreme deity, the Lord of Heaven, of whom the various Baals would be so many manifestations, we shall leave to scholars to decide. Some deem that the bible favours this view, for its language frequently seems to imply the belief in a Baal par excellence.

BAAL-WORSHIP AMONG THE GENTILES

The evidence is hardly of such weight as to justify us in speaking of a worship of Baal. The Baal-worship so often alluded to and described in Holy Writ might, perhaps, be better styled, Çid-worship, moon-worship, Melek (Moloch)-worship, or Hadad-worship, according to places and circumstances. Many of the practices mentioned were most probable common to the worship of all the Baals; a few others are certainly specific.

A custom common among Semites should be noticed here. Moved, most likely, by the desire to secure the protection of the local Baal for their children, the Semites always showed a preference for names compounded with that of the deity; those of Hasdrubal (`Azrû Bá`ál), Hannibal (Hanni Bá`ál), Baltasar, or Belshazzar (Bel-sar-Ushshur), have become famous in history. Scores of such names belonging to different nationalities are recorded in the Bible, and in ancient writers, and in inscriptions.

The worship of Baal was performed in the sacred precincts of the high places so numerous throughout the country (Num., xxii, 41; xxxiii, 52; Deut., xii, 2, etc) or in temples like those of Samaria (III Kings, xvi, 32; IV Kings, x, 21-27) and Jerusalem (IV Kings, xi, 18), even on the terraced roofs of the houses (IV Kings, xxiii, 12; Jer., xxxii, 29). The furniture of these sanctuaries probably varied with the Baals honoured there. Near the altar which existed everywhere (Judges, vi 25; III Kings, xviii, 26; IV Kings, xi, 18; Jer., xi, 13, etc.), might be found, according to the particular place, either an image of the deity (Hadad was symbolized by a calf), or the bætylion (i.e. sacred stone, regularly cone-shaped in Chanaan) supposed to have been originally intended to represent the world, abode of the god; of the hammanim (very possible sunpillars; Lev., xxvi, 30; II Par., xxiv, 4, etc.), and asherah (wrongly interpreted grove in our Bibles; Judges, vi, 25; III Kings, xiv, 23; IV Kings, xvii, 10; Jer., xvii, 2 etc.), a sacred pole, sometimes, possible, a tree, the original signification of which is far from clear, together with votive or commemorative stelae (máççebhôth, usually mistranslated images), more or less ornamented. There incense and perfumes were burned (IV Kings, xxii, 5; Jer., vii, 9, xi, 13, and according to the Hebrew, xxxii, 29), libations poured (Jer., xix, 13), and sacrifices of oxen and other animals offered up to the Baal; we hear even (Jer., vii, 31;xix, 5;xxxii, 35; II Par., xxviii 3) that children of both sexes were not infrequentlly burned in sacrifice to Melek (D. V. Moloch, A.V. Molech), and II Par., xxviii, 3 (perhaps also IV Kings, xxi, 6 ) tells us that young princes were occasionally chosen as victims to this stern deity. In several shrines long trains of priests, distributed into several classes (III Kings, xviii, 19; IV Kings, x, 19; xxiii, 5; Soph., i, 4, etc.) and clad in special attire (IV Kings, x, 22) performed the sacred function; they prayed, shouted to the Baal, led dances around the altar, and in their frenzied excitement cut themselves with knives and lancets, till they were all covered with blood (III Kings, xviii, 26-28). In the meantime the lay worshippers also prayed, kneeling, and paid their homage by kissing the images or symbols of the Baal (III Kings, xix, 18; Os., xiii, 2, Hebr.), or even their own hands. To this should be added the immoral practices indulged in at several shrines (III Kings, xiv, 24; IV Kings, xxiii, 7; cf. Deut., xxiii, 18) in honour of the Baal as male of reproduction, and of his mate Asherah (D.V. Astarthe, A. V. Ashtaroth).

BAAL WORSHIP-AMONG THE ISRAELITES

Nothing could be more fatal to a spiritual faith than this sensual religion. In fact, no sooner than the Israelites, coming forth from the wilderness, been brought into contact with the Baal-worshippers, than they were, through the guile of the Madianites, and the attractions of the licentious worship offered to the Moabitish deity (probably Chamos), easily seduced from their allegiance to Yahweh (Num., xxv, 1-9). Henceforth the name of Beelphegor remained like a dark spot on the early history of Israel {Os., ix, 10; Ps. ev (In the Hebr. cvi), 28}. The terrible punishment inflicted upon the guilty sobered for awhile the minds of the Hebrews. How long the impression lasted we are hardly able to tell; but this we know, that when they had settled in the Promised Land, the Israelites, again forsaking the One True God, paid their homage to the deities of their Chanaanite neighours (Judges, ii, 11, 13 etc.). Even the best families could not, or did not dare, resist the seduction, Gedon’s father, for instant, albeit his faith in his Baal seems to have been somewhat lukewarm (Judges, vi, 31), had erected an idolatrous altar in Ephra (Judges, vi, 25). “And the Lord, being angry against Israel, delivered them into the hands of their enemies that dwelt round about.” Mesopotamians, Madianites, Amalecites, Ammonites, and, above all, Philistines, were successively the providential avengers of God’s disregarded rights.

During the warlike reigns of Saul and David, the Israelites as a whole thought little of shaking Yahweh’s yoke; such also was, apparently, the situation under Solomon’s rule, although the example given by this prince must have told deplorably upon his subjects. After the division of his empire, the Northern Kingdom, first led by its rulers to an unlawful worship of Yahweh, sank speedily into the grossest Chanaanite superstitions. This was the more easy because certain customs, it seems, brought about confusion in the clouded minds of the uneducated portion of the people. Names like Esbaal (I Par., viii, 33; ix, 39), Meribbaal (I Par., viii, 34; ix, 40), Baaliada (I Par., xiv, 7), given by Saul, Johnathen, and David to their sons, suggest that Yahweh was possibly spoken of as Baal. The fact has been disputed; but the existence of such a name as Baalia ( i.e. “Yahweh is Baal”, I Par., xii, 5) and the affirmation of Osee (ii, 16) are arguments that cannot be slighted. True, the word was used later on only in reference to idolatrous worship, and even deemed so obnoxious that bosheth, shame, was frequently substituted for it in compound proper names, thus giving, for instance, such inoffensive forms as Elioda (II Kings, v, 16), Yerubbesheth (II Kings, xi, 21, Hebr.)., Isboseth (II Kings, ii, 10) and elsewhere, Miphiboseth (II Kings, ix, 6; xxi, 8); but these corrections were due to a spirit which did not prevail until centuries after the age with which we shall presently deal.

Achab’s accession to the throne of Israel inaugarated a new era, that of the official worship. Married to a Sidonian princess, Jezebel, the king erected to the Baal of her native city (Cid or Melkart) a temple (III Kings, xvi, 31, 32) in which a numerous body of priests officiated (III Kings, xviii, 19). To what a forlorn state the true faith in the Northern Kingdom fell Elias relates to III Kings, xix, 10, 14: The children of Israel have forsaken thy covenant: they have thrown down thy altars, they have slain thy prophets with the sword. There remained but seven thousand men whose knees had not been bowed before Baal (III Kings, xix, 18). Ochozias, son of Achab and Jezebel, followed in his parents footsteps (III Kings, xxii, 54) and although Joram, his brother and successor, took away the maccebhoth set up by his father, the Baal-worship was not stamped out of Samaria (IV Kings, iii, 2, 3) until its adherents were slaughtered and its temple destroyed at the command of Jehu (IV Kings, x, 18-28). Violent as this repression was, it hardly survived the prince who had undertaken it. The annals of the reigns of his successors witness to the religious corruption again prevailling; and the author of IV Kings could sum up this sad history in the following few words: They forsook all the precepts of the Lord their God: and made to themselves two molten calves, and groves [asherah], and adored all the host of heaven : and they served Baal. And consecrated their sons, and their daughters through fire: and they gave themselves to divinations, and soothsayings: and they delivered themselves to do evil before the Lord, to provoke him. And the Lord was very angry with Israel, and removed them from his sight . . . . and Israel was carried away out of their land to Assyria, unto this day. (IV Kings, xvii, 16-18, 23).

Meanwhile the kingdom of Juda fared no better. There, also, the princes, far from checking the drift of the people to idolatry, were their instigators and abettors. Established by Joram (IV Kings, viii, 18), probably at the suggestion of Athalia his wife, who was the daughter of Achab and Jezebel, the Phoenician worship was continued by Ochozias (IV Kings, viii, 27). We know from IV Kings, xi, 18 that a temple had been dedicated to Baal (very likely to Baal honoured in Samaria) in the Holy City, either by one of these princes or Athalia. At the latter’s death, this temple was destroyed by the faithful people and its furniture broken to pieces (IV Kings, xi, 18; II Par., xxiii, 17). If this reaction did not crush utterly the Baal-worship in Juda, it left very little of it alive, since, for over a century, no case of idolatry is recorded by the sacred writers. In the reign of Achaz, however, we find the evil not only flourishing again, but countenanced by public authority. But a change has taken place in Juda’s idolatry; instead of the Sidonian Baal, Melek (Moloch), the cruel diety of the Ammonites, had become the people’s favourite (II Par., xxviii, 2; IV Kings, xvi, 3, 4). His barbarous rites rooted out Ezechias, appeared again with the support of Manasses, by whose influence the Assyro-Babylonian astral deities were added to the Pathenon of the Judean idolaters (IV Kings, xxiii, 4, 5) produced no lasting results, and after his death the various superstitions in vogue held sway until “the Lord cast out from his face Juda and Jerusalem” (IV Kings, xxiii, 32, 37; xxiv, 9, 19, and elsewhere).

The Babylonians invasions dealt to the Baal-worship in Palestine a deadly blow. At the restoration Israel shall be Yahweh s people, and He their God (Exech., xiv, 11), and Baal will become altogether a thing of the past.

Selden, De diis syris (1617); Gigot, Biblical Lectures (Baltimore, 1901), V; Id., Outlines Of Jewish History (New York 1905); PEAKES in HASTINGS, Dict. bible, s.v. Baal; THATCHER, ibid., s.v. Phoenicia; OTTLEY, The Religion Of Israel (Cambridge, 1905): SAYCE, The Gods Of Canan, in Contemporary Review for Sept., 1883; W.R. Smith, The Religion Of The Semites (Edinburgh, 1889); BOURQUENOU ET DUTAC, Etudes archeologiques in Etudes Religieuses (1864-1866); LAGRANGE, Etudes sur les religions semitiques (Pairs, 1903); MASPERO, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique (Paris, 1898); REVILLE, La religion des Pheniciens in Revue des deux mondes, for 15 May 1873; TIELE, La religion phenicienne, in Revue de l’histoire des religions (1881), III; VIGOUROUX in Dict. de las bible, s.v. Baal; Id., La bible et les decouvertes modernes (Paris, 1889), III; Id., Les pretres de Baal et leurs successeurs dans l’antiquite et dans le tempra present, in Revue bibilique for April (1896); DE VOGUE, Melanges d’archelogie orientale (Paris 1868); BATHGEN, Beitrage zur semitisches Religionsgeschichte (Berlin, 1888); BAUDISSIN, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1876-78); Id., in HERZOG Realencyklopadie, s.v. Baal und Bel; MARTI, Geschichte der israelitiechen, Religion (1897); MEYER, Ueber einige semitische Gotter, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft (1877); MOVERS, Die Phonizier (1841-56); OORT, Dienst des Baal in Israel (Leyden, 1864); SCHRADER, Baal und Bel, in Theologische Studien und Kritiken (1874); SMEND, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlischen Religionsgeschichte (Greiburg, Leipzig, 1893, 1899)
For use of the plural (Baalim), DRIVER, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, on I Sam., vii, 3; BURNEY, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings, on I (III), xviii 18.

CHARLES L. SOUVAY
Transcribed by Beth Ste-Marie

Sep 23

Celtic Gods

Celtic Gods

The Celts are a subgroup of the Native British, Irish and European ethnic group collectively referred to as the White race. The Celts would not have called themselves Celts, the term derives from the Hellenic (Greek) and Roman terms given to them. Their history begins in Europe around 1,000 B.C.E. (Before the Common or Christian Era) and begins to fade out around 50 B.C.E. This is around the time when the Celts had been ‘pushed’ up into the British Isles. Then, the British Isles themselves, to a large extent, went under Roman occupation. Other subgroups of the Native European people, such as the Germanics, who included the Germans (obviously), the Saxons and the Norse (or Vikings) along with the Celts all came from the same original ancient Indo-Aryan roots. Those familiar with Germanic Mythology will notice a definite similarity between the Celtic and the Germanic Myths. The designs of the clothing, weapons etcetera are also near identical. Then, there is the Indo-European language tree etcetera.

Many Celtic deities seem to have been associated with aspects of nature and worshipped in sacred groves. Some appear in all Celtic areas while others have purely local significance. Many minor gods and goddesses are mentioned in inscriptions and sculptures, but Lugh, Epona and Cernunnos were among the most important. The Celtic oral tradition meant that the myths and legends were not written down until after the Christian church had been established in Britain, so the versions that exist were subject to its influence. The deities were changed into fairies and their powers into magic while the great festivals were included in the Christian calendar.

The Druids or priests were more important than the kings in Celtic society and their decisions were law. Even the king could not speak first. Their training took some years and there were special colleges in which philosophy, law, poems and stories were learnt by rote which preserved the mystery of Druidic doctrines. They were credited with supernatural powers of healing and prophecy and were believed to be able to enter the Otherworld.

God Worship in Roman Brigantia

Numerous inscriptions are found near the line of the Roman Wall, and in or near the Roman camps in Cumberland and Westmorland, addressed to the various deities worshipped by the legionary and auxiliary troops. These divide themselves into some four classes: first, those addressed to the gods and goddesses of the Roman mythology. Thus, many altars have been found in Cumberland dedicated to Jupiter, for instance, by the Dacians at Birdoswald, Lanercost, and Bewcastle; by the Tungrians at Castlesteads, by the Gauls at Old Carlisle; by the Spaniards at Maryport; by the Ala Augusta at Old Carlisle; and by other auxiliary troops elsewhere in the district, while many altars also occur dedicated to Jupiter by individuals.

It has been noted that altars to Jupiter are generally larger and more ornate than those to other gods. Dedications to Mars are by no means so numerous: they occur at Birdoswald, Castlesteads, Old Penrith, Old Carlisle and Brougham, and there was a temple to Mars at Carlisle. Dedications have also occurred to Hercules, to Silvanus the god of hunting, to Victory, personified as a goddess, and to other deities worshipped by the Romans in their own Italy. The genii of the camps and the cohorts, and of the emperors, the nymphs of the fountains, all have their altars. The size and workmanship of these altars, particularly those to Jupiter, lead to the idea that they were inspired by the Roman commanders, and belong to an early period of the occupation.15 The second class of these dedicatory inscriptions are to gods with strange uncouth names, the local gods of the Brythonic Celts.

These altars are generally small and rudely carved, indicating a late period of the occupation, and that they were the work of the rank and file of the Roman legions and their auxiliaries who had intermarried or cohabited with the native women, and so become acquainted with their gods. Thus in Cumberland altars have been found dedicated to Belutucador, to Mogontis, to Vetiris, to Maponus, and to Setlocenia: those to Belutucador have also been found in Westmorland. Some have endeavoured to identify this god with the Phoenician Baal, in which case he would belong to the next class: both he and Cocidius appear joined in dedications with Mars, and so may be Brythonic gods of war. Maponus is conjoined once or twice with Apollo, and may be his native equivalent.

These deities are frequent in, if not peculiar to, Cumberland, and must have been found there by the Romans. The third class consists of dedications to deities imported by the auxiliary troops. This class includes the deæ matres, whose altars and inscriptions are numerous in Belgic Gaul and in Germany, and especially along the banks of the Rhine. They belong to the Teutonic race, and are represented as three seated female figures, with baskets or bowls of fruit on their knees; instances occur, locally, of either dedications to or representations of the deæ matres at Brougham, Old Penrith, Stanwix, Carlisle, Netherby, &c. These are generally rude and poor in execution. The fourth class consists of slabs and sculptured figures, telling of the wave of Mithraic superstition that from the time of Hadrian swept from east to west. The great Mithraic find at Housesteads, in Northumberland, is outside the district we are dealing with, but sculptured stones, indicative of Mithraic worship, have been found at Drawdikes and Murrill Hill, both near Carlisle, and at Maryport.

The Celtic gods

Antenociticus The name of this Celtic god is known from three inscriptions found in a small shrine at Benwell near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Brigit “The High One,” was patron deity of the Brigantes tribe in northern Britain. Associated with water and springs, she was also a goddess of poetry, learning, prophecy, and divination. Links with Minerva include a spear and globe. Another equivalent is the Irish goddess Brigit, namesake of St. Brigit. Long after the fall of the Brigantes as an independent force in Britain, the worship of Brigantia continued throughout the territory, as is witnessed by the many votive offerings found in the region, Halifax and South Shields for example. Flora and Fauna associated with Brigit.

Deae Matres (“Mother Goddesses”) Usually seen as a trinity, these fertility goddesses are often shown holding baskets of fruit, bread, or fish. The Deae Matres were also associated with water and sacred springs, and sometimes fused with local water deities such as Bath. Sculptures of the Matres also occur at Cirencester, Lincoln, and London.

Dea Nutrix Another form of Mother Goddess is “nursing mother” (Dea Nutrix). Clay statuettes of this goddess, mass-produced in Gaul and exported to Britain, show the young goddess seated in a high-backed wicker chair nursing one or two infants.

Epona The Celtic horse goddess, popular in Gaul and Germany, spread to a lesser extent to Britain via Roman cavalry troops. She is invoked in a small altar at Carvoran on Hadrian’s Wall. While always depicted with horses, Epona is sometimes also shown with grain and a patera (offering bowl), which tie her to fertility and prosperity rituals.

Mogons Dedications to this god, whom the Romans identified with Apollo, occur at several fort sites around Hadrian’s Wall, including Netherby, Vindolanda, Risingham, and Old Penrith. Mogons was probably a Germanic import, since the Latin name for Mainz is Mogontiacum.

Rosmerta A Celtic goddess usually found as a companion of the Celtic Mercury in Britain, Germany, and Gaul. She appears on a relief in the Gloucester Museum holding a patera over an altar.

Sulis The patron deity of Bath (Aquae Sulis), she was associated with water, hot springs, and healing. The temple at Bath was dedicated to a composite goddess, Sulis Minerva.

Taranis God of thunder and lightning (taren is Welsh for “thunder”), symbolized by a wheel. Known archaeologically in Gaul and Germany, and mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan in his play Pharsalia, he is linked to Jupiter in an altar from Chester.

Veteris A warrior god, may represent a group of deities. At least seven versions of the same name are recorded in 54 inscriptions, most from the eastern half of Hadrian’s Wall between Carvoran and Benwell. Based on the modest quality of these monuments, Veteris seems to represent a lower class cult. While linked at Netherby to the god Mogons, he is not identified with any Roman gods.

“Horned God” This unnamed god was widely dispersed in Britain, especially in the south, where he was frequently linked with the Roman god Mercury. He often appears with two short horns in uninscribed reliefs. Variants in Gaul have stag antlers, with one inscription from Roman Paris identifying him with Cemunnos (“the homed one”).

Cernunnos – God of the Underworld and of animals. He is depicted as a man with the antlers of a stag.

Taranis – God of the wheel, associated with forces of change.

Bel – Bel or Belenos, God of light.

Bran – Giant who delighted in battle and carnage. He was the son of Lir (or Llyr) and a mortal woman. He led the giants from Wales on their invasion of Ireland, being killed by a poisoned arrow in the battle with Evnissyen which followed the deposition of the Irish king.

Lugh – (Irish), Lugh or Lug was the God of light. He killed his grandfather, Balor, during the Great Battle in which a New Order of Gods and Goddesses took over from the primal beings of chaotic energy. He was the God of skill and ability.

Mabon – Son of Light, equated with the Roman Apollo. He was the God of liberation, harmony, music and unity. His festival is called Mabon, it is the Fall or Autumnal Equinox.

Gwydion – Son of Don, a master of fantasy and illusion, and the teacher of humans of all that is good and useful. He is a friend of Humanity and perpetually fights the Underworld powers for the good gifts they refuse to give to Humanity.

Nuada – (Gaulish) “He Of The Silver Hand” a God of war. The supreme God of the Gauls.

Nudd – Nudd or Lludd is a son of Beli. He was a sky God and is attributed with stopping three Supernatural plagues.

Oenghus – (Irish) God of fatal love and son of Daghdha and Boann.

Ogmios – God of the strength of poetry, charm and incantation. He is depicted as an old man carrying a club and a bow.

Amaethon – Son of Don and God of agriculture.

Angus Og – (Irish) God of love and beauty.

Bladud – (English) Father of King Lear, and was said to have founded Bath having been cured by it’s waters.

Manannan mac Lir – Manannan mac Lir, or Barinthus was the God of the ocean. He ferried the wounded King Arthur to the otherworld so that he could be cured.

Mark – King of Cornwall (now part of England) and uncle of Tristan, and suitor and husband of Isolde.

Naoise – (Irish) Husband of Deirdre. He was killed by his uncle Conchoba 

Llyr – (Welsh) God of the sea, he relates to the Irish Lir.

Luchtaine – God of wheel making.

Gwyn ap Nudd – Gwyn ap Nudd, or Gwyn is the Lord of the Underworld and Master of the Wild Hunt. He lives at Glastonbury Tor.

Gwyrthur ap Greidawl – Gwyrthur ap Greidawl, or Gwyrthur is a rival to Gwyn ap Nudd for the affections of Creurdilad. He is a solar God, representing day.

Herne The Hunter – In English folklore, Herne The Hunter is the spirit of a hunter which guards travellers through Windsor Great Park. He wears the antlers of a stag upon his head. Herne was prominent in the tales of Robin Hood, although Windsor Great Park is nowhere near Sherwood Forest.

Dylan – God of darkness, a twin son of Gwydion and Arianrhod. He was a sea God, and swam like a fish. Upon his death at the hands of a spear thrown by his uncle Govannan, the sea for ever more wept for him in the form of waves crashing on the shore.

Finn MacCool – Irish prophet, warrior and healer. He learned his skills either from touching the flesh of Fintan as he cooked him, or by sipping the God’s wine as he served them at table.

Fintan – Shape changer. He was the only Irish survivor of Noah’s flood, changing into a hawk to soar above the waters and into a salmon to live in them. He ate the God’s magic hazlenuts and received all knowledge, but was netted in a salmon-trap and cooked for the God’s banquet by Finn MacCool who in doing touched Fintan’s flesh and absorbed the knowledge from Fintan turning him into a seer and healer on the spot.

Gawain – Son of King Lot of Orkney or the sun God Lug. Gawain was one of Arthur’s most loyal and noble followers. One New Year’s Eve a green giant rode into the hall at Camelot and challenged the bravest warrior there to cut off his head, and then one year later, to visit the giant’s castle to have his own head chopped off. Gawain accepted the challenge and decapitated the giant, who picked up his head and galloed away. One year later Gawain went in search off the giant and came to the castle of Lord Bertilak and was entertained there for three days and three nights. Each night Bertilak’s wife came to Gawain and tried to seduce him, and each time Gawain resisted her. On the fourth day, alone in the castle grounds Gawain came upon the giant and bent down to have his head cut off. Three times the giant swung the axe, and each time he stopped short, before disappearing and Bertilak stood in his place. Bertilak told Gawain that the entire thing had been a test set by Morgan le Fay to find the bravest of Arthur’s followers, and that each swing of the axe was for a night when he had resisted the attentions of Bertilak’s wife. Had he given in to temptation he would have died.

Aywell – Protector of the independant peoples of Northern England. He was the husband of Mm.

Camulus – In English Celtic Mythology, Camulus (Heaven) was a God of war identified by the Romans with Mars. He gave his name to the town of Camulodunum, now called Colchester.

Cuchulain – Celtic hero, the chief figure in a cycle of Irish legends. He is associated with his uncle Conchobar, King of Ulster; his most famous exploits are described in The Cattle Raid of Cuchulain.

Cuchulinn – Cuchulinn is a hero King of Ulster and son of Lugh. He is a warlike figure and tales tell of his warlike deeds.

Dagda – Dagda was the Celtic equivalent of Cronus. Also called Cian.

Daghdha – (Irish) Great God. He had a secret affair with Boann which resulted in the birth of Oenghus.

Conchobar – King of Ulster whose intended bride, Deidre, eloped with Noisi. Conchobar killed Deidre’s husband and his brothers and she died of sorrow.

Creidhne – God of metal working.

Diancecht – (Irish) God of healing. He destroyed the giant serpent that threatened and destroyed cattle throughout the land.

Dis – (Gaulish) God of death from whom the Gauls were descended.

Goibhniu – Smith God.

Govannan – Son of Don and God of smithcraft.

Gronw Pebyr – God of darkness.

Lir – Lir (or Lleyr or Llyr) was the Old Man of the Sea. He had four beautiful children which he doted on. After his wife died he married her sister who hated him and turned his children into swans, mute and aloof from him. By the time Lir had discovered what had happened to his children and reversed the spell they had aged into withered old people.

Lleu – God of light, a twin son of Gwydion and Arianrhod.

The Celtic Goddesses

Nemetona – Goddess of war.

Nimue – A shape changer who loved Merlin. After a contest of magic she captured him forever by turning herself into a drop of amber and engulfing him.

Penardum – Goddess of the sea married to Llyr.

Rosmerta – (Gaulish) Goddess of fire, warmth, wealth and abundance. A flower Queen and hater of marriage. She was the beldame of death.

Sulis – Goddess of prophesy, inspiration, wisdom and death.

Andraste – Warrior Goddess. She was invoked by Queen Boudicea (also called Boudicca) of the Iceni Tribe when she revolted against the Roman occupation of Britain around 61 C.E.

Arduina – Goddess of woodlands, wild life, the hunt and the moon; Guardian and Eponym of the Ardennes Forest.

Arianrhod – (Welsh) Arianrhod or Arianrod (Silver-Wheel or Silver-Circle) was the Virgin White Goddess of birth, initiation, death and rebirth. She who turns the circle of Heaven. She was a sister and wife of Gwydion.

Mm – Goddess of thought of the independant peoples of what is now Northern England. She never appeared alone, but always followed after her impetuous husband Aywell providing caution to his flashes of uncontrolled energy.

Morrighan – Morrighan or Morrigan. Goddess of war and death who could take the shape of a crow. Appears in the sky over battles and picks the warriors whom are to die.

Etain – Etain (Shining-One) was the Triple Goddess of the sun, water, horses, fragrance, beauty, music and the transmigration of souls.

Fata Morgana – (Irish) Goddess of the sea, visual illusions, enchantment, fate and death. She is the Queen of the Fortunate Isles.

Cordelia – (Welsh) She has two lovers, Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwyrthur ap Greidawl who fight for her on the 1st of May each year and will continue to do so until the day of doom when one shall be victorious and marry her.

Boann – (Irish) Goddess of rivers.

Branwen – Goddess of love. She was a daughter of Llyr.

Brighid – (Gaelic) Brighid or Brigit was the Goddess of metalwork, smiths, poetic inspiration and therapy. With Christianity she was changed into ‘Saint’ Brigit.

Cerridwen – (Welsh) Goddess of dark prophetic powers. She is the keeper of the cauldron of the Underworld, in which inspiration and divine knowledge are brewed.

Creurdilad – Daughter of Lludd and lover of Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwyrthur ap Greidawl. Her Mythology developed into that of Cordelia, with the names of her lovers also amending with time.

Deirdre – Beautiful intended bride of Conchobar. She eloped with NoÌsi, and died of sorrow when Conchobar killed him and his brothers.

Druantia – Goddess of birth, wisdom, death and metempsychosis. The mother of the Irish tree calendar alphabet.

Elaine – Virgin Goddess of beauty and the moon. She was the matron of road building and a loveable leader of hosts.

Epona – Goddess of horses.

Eriu – (Irish) Shapeshifting Goddess of fate. The bestower of sovereignty.

Geofon – Ocean Goddess.

Macha – (Irish) Goddess of athletic games, festivals and fertility.

Isolde – Isolde was the wife of King Mark of Cornwall who was brought from Ireland by his nephew Tristan. She and Tristan accidentally drank the aphrodisiac given to her by her mother for her marriage, were separated as lovers, and finally died together.

Guinevere – Guinevere or Guinever, is the French spelling of the Celtic name Gwynhwfar (‘White Cloud’). Gwynhwfar was a cloud Goddess who often, for mischief, took mortal form and entered the world of Humans to cause havoc. Soon after Arthur became King of Camelot, she entered the womb of a Roman princess whose husband ruled in Britain, and was born, as a beautiful mortal: Guinevere. In due course Arthur married her, against the advice of Merlin. Guinevere was the most beautiful woman in the world, and all Arthur’s knights would have had sex with her if they hadn’t been bound by their oaths of chivalry. Only Lancelot succumbed, and his and Guinevere’s adultery broke Arthur’s heart and led to the end of Camelot. When the company of the Round Table was broken up and its heroes disappeared into legend, Guinevere resumed her identity as Gwynhwfar, returned to the sky and has ever since been planning her next earthly manifestation.

Other Beings

Banshee – (Gaelic) Female spirit whose wailing outside a house foretells the death of one of its inhabitants.

Bebhionn – (Irish) Giantess from the Maiden’s Land far off the West coast of Ireland known for her beauty and seduction.

Badb – (Irish) Tall Giantess form of Morrighan.

Blodeuwedd – Wife of Lleu. She was created by Gwydion and Math from the blossoms of the oak, broom and meadow-sweet and presented to Lleu as a bride.

Another List of Gods

Notes on various Celtic Pantheons
Compiled by I. Marc Carlson
Celtic Gods – Ancient
—————————————-
Bolgios (Celtic) War God?
Brennos (Celtic) War God?
Epona (Celtic) Goddess of the Horse
Moccos (Celtic) Boar God
Tauros (Celtic) Bull God
Kernunnos (Celtic) Wild Nature, Sky God, Storms, the Hunt, the Dead, etc.
*Matrona (Celtic) Great Mother, Earth Goddess, Nature, Life
Theutates (Celtic) Wisdom?
Celtic Gods – Welsh/British
————————————————————————————————-
Alator (British) War God?
Andarta (British)Bear Goddess
Arawn (British) Lord of Anwyn. King of the Dead.
Arecurius (British)
Arionrod (British) “Silverwheel” The Moon
Artorios (British) Bear Goddess
Barrex (British)
Belatucadros (British – Selgovae) “Bright Beautiful One” War God?
Belinus (British) Bel, Belenos. Sun
Borvo (British) Bormo, Bormannos. Thermal Springs
Braciaca (British) War God.
Brigantia (British – Brigantii) Brigit. Tutalary Goddess. Life, Knowledge,
Wisdom, Home, Hearth
Bron/Bran (British)
Camulos (British – Belgic) War God
Cernenus (British – Cornavii)
Cernunnos (British) “Horned One” Horned God. Lord of the Animals or of all
living things. War God. Ruler of the Underworld. Wild Nature,
“Foundation of the World”
Horned god w/a bag of Grain
Cimialcinnus (British)Roads, Paths
Cocidius (British – Brigantes) War God; Wild Nature.
Condatis (Brtish) War God
Contrebus (British)
Coriotiacus (British – Trinovantes)
Damona (British)Divine Cow Goddess
*Donnos (British)”The Brown or Dark One”. Lord of the Dead. “Dis Pater”
Dylan (British) Waves
Emrys (British – Demetae) “Light” Dawn, the Wind
Epona (British – Epidii) “Great Mare” Horses
Esus (British) Aesus. Nature, Patron of Shepherds. Warrior. Ruler of the
Underworld.
*Gobbanos (British) Smith
Gofannon (British) Smith, Fire, the Forge
Grannos Sun, Healing
Gwynn ap Nudd. (British)(Cernunnos Aspect) Guardian of the Dead. King of the
Otherworld. Wild Huntsman. Chief of Tylweth Teg (Welsh Faeries) and
Ellyllon (elves)
Ialonus (British)
Latis (British)
Lenumius (British – Otadinii)
Lenus (British) War God. Goose God.
Leucetius (British) “The Shining One” or “Lighting” War God.
Lugus (British)”Shining One.” King of the Gods. Inventor of Arts, Skills,
War and Healing.
Lyr (British) The Sea (Tri God Aspect)
Magusanis (British)
Mapanos (British) “The Divine Child”
Matrona (British) “The Divine Mother”
Mongons (British) “The Great Hunter”
Morgan Mwynoaur (British) Sea. Shapechanger & Mage.
Mullo (British) Mules
Nantosuelta (British) Nantosvelta. Consort of Sucellus
Nemetius (British – Troveri) War God. Guardian of the Sacred Groves.
Nemetona (British – Nemetes / Troveri) Godddess of the Sacred Groves. War
goddess?
Nodens (British) Nudd/Ludd “Cloudmaker”, “Silver handed”. (Tri God Aspect)
King of the Tuatha. War. The Sea. [Maimed King] Ocellos (British – Silures)
Ogmios (British) Champion of the Gods. Old Bald Guy, Lion’s Skin Club & Bow.
Great Strength, Poetry and eloquance. Guide of the dead.
Ratis (British) Goddess of Luck
Rhiannon (British)
Rigonemeta (British) Rigonometis. God of the Sacred Grove. War God. (Nemetius?)
Rudiobus (British) Horse God, Horsemanship
Saitada (British)
Secullos (British) “Good Striker”. Teutates. Storms? A river god. The God
with the Mallot, and Bowl of Abundance. God of the Underworld.
Setloceniua (British)
Silvanus (British) Guardian of the forests and Patron of Agriculture
Sirona (British) Healing Goddess
Sulis (British – [Bath]) Sul. Minerva Warm Springs
Taranos (British) Taranis; Turannos. “Thunderer” Lightning, Thunder, Storms.
Ruler of the Underworld. Has a Big Wheel.
Teutates (British) Toutatis; Totatis. “God of the People.” ie, Secullos. War
God of Brigantes. May be same as Cernunnos.
Ursula of the Silver Host (British) Swanmaiden
Vellaunus (British) War God?
Vitiris (British – Selgovae) War God?
Celtic Gods – Gallic
————————————————————————————————-
Alator (Gaulic) War God?
Andarta (Gaulic)Bear Goddess
Arawn (Gaulic) Lord of Anwyn. King of the Dead.
Arecurius (Gaulic)
Arionrod (Gaulic) “Silverwheel” The Moon
Artorios (Gaulic) Bear Goddess
Barrex (Gaulic)
Belatucadros (Gaulic – Selgovae) “Bright Beautiful One” War God?
Belinus (Gaulic) Bel, Belenos. Sun
Borvo (Gaulic) Bormo, Bormannos. Thermal Springs
Braciaca (Gaulic) War God.
Brigantia (Gaulic – Brigantii) Brigit. Tutalary Goddess. Life, Knowledge,
Wisdom, Home, Hearth
Bron/Bran (Gaulic)
Camulos (Gaulic – Belgic) War God
Cernenus (Gaulic – Cornavii)
Cernunnos (Gaulic) “Horned One” Horned God. Lord of the Animals or of all
living things. War God. Ruler of the Underworld. Wild Nature,
“Foundation of the World”
Horned god w/a bag of Grain
Cimialcinnus (Gaulic)Roads, Paths
Cocidius (Gaulic – Brigantes) War God; Wild Nature.
Condatis (Brtish) War God
Contrebus (Gaulic)
Coriotiacus (Gaulic – Trinovantes)
Damona (Gaulic)Divine Cow Goddess
*Donnos (Gaulic)”The Brown or Dark One”. Lord of the Dead. “Dis Pater”
Dylan (Gaulic) Waves
Emrys (Gaulic – Demetae) “Light” Dawn, the Wind
Epona (Gaulic – Epidii) “Great Mare” Horses
Esus (Gaulic) Aesus. Nature, Patron of Shepherds. Warrior. Ruler of the
Underworld.
*Gobbanos (Gaulic) Smith
Gofannon (Gaulic) Smith, Fire, the Forge
Grannos Sun, Healing
Gwynn ap Nudd. (Gaulic)(Cernunnos Aspect) Guardian of the Dead. King of the
Otherworld. Wild Huntsman. Chief of Tylweth Teg (Welsh Faeries) and
Ellyllon (elves)
Ialonus (Gaulic)
Latis (Gaulic)
Lenumius (Gaulic – Otadinii)
Lenus (Gaulic) War God. Goose God.
Leucetius (Gaulic) “The Shining One” or “Lighting” War God.
Lugus (Gaulic)”Shining One.” King of the Gods. Inventor of Arts, Skills,
War and Healing.
Lyr (Gaulic) The Sea (Tri God Aspect)
Magusanis (Gaulic)
Mapanos (Gaulic) “The Divine Child”
Matrona (Gaulic) “The Divine Mother”
Mongons (Gaulic) “The Great Hunter”
Morgan Mwynoaur (Gaulic) Sea. Shapechanger & Mage.
Mullo (Gaulic) Mules
Nantosuelta (Gaulic) Nantosvelta. Consort of Sucellus
Nemetius (Gaulic – Troveri) War God. Guardian of the Sacred Groves.
Nemetona (Gaulic – Nemetes / Troveri) Godddess of the Sacred Groves. War
goddess?
Nodens (Gaulic) Nudd/Ludd “Cloudmaker”, “Silver handed”. (Tri God Aspect)
King of the Tuatha. War. The Sea. [Maimed King] Ocellos (Gaulic – Silures)
Ogmios (Gaulic) Champion of the Gods. Old Bald Guy, Lion’s Skin Club & Bow.
Great Strength, Poetry and eloquance. Guide of the dead.
Olloudius (Gaulic – Narbonenses) War God
Ratis (Gaulic) Goddess of Luck
Rhiannon (Gaulic)
Rigisaumus (Gaulic) War God
Rigonemeta (Gaulic) Rigonometis. God of the Sacred Grove. War God. (Nemetius?)
Rudiobus (Gaulic) Horse God, Horsemanship
Saitada (Gaulic)
Secullos (Gaulic) “Good Striker”. Teutates. Storms? A river god. The God
with the Mallot, and Bowl of Abundance. God of the Underworld.
Segomo (Gaulic) War God
Setloceniua (Gaulic)
Silvanus (Gaulic)Guardian of the forests and Patron of Agriculture
Sirona (Gaulic)Healing Goddess
Sulis (Gaulic – [Bath]) Sul. Minerva Warm Springs
Taranos (Gaulic) Taranis; Turannos. “Thunderer” Lightning, Thunder, Storms.
Ruler of the Underworld. Has a Big Wheel.
Teutates (Gaulic) Toutatis; Totatis. “God of the People.” ie, Secullos. War
God of Brigantes. May be same as Cernunnos.
Vellaunus (Gaulic) War God?
Vitiris (Gaulic – Selgovae) War God?

Sep 23

Monmouth’s Kings of Britain

Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Kings of Britain

 These are semi-legendary kings of whom some can be identified with historical personalities.

Name

Reign

Family

Spouse
Brutus 23 yrs
Locrinus 10 yrs Son of Brutus Gwendolen
Gwendolen 15 yrs Widow of Locrinus
Maddan 40 yrs Son of L + G
Mempricius 20 yrs Son of Mempricius
Ebraucus 39 yrs Son of Maddan 20 wives
Brutus Greenshield 12 yrs Son of Ebraucus
Leil 25 years Son of Brutus G
Rud Hud Hudibras 39 yrs Son of Leil
Bladud 20 yrs Son of RHH
Leir (King Lear) 60 yrs Son of Bladud
Cordelia 5 yrs Daughter of Leir
Marganus I + Cunedagius 2 yrs jointly then C 33 yrs Sons of Goneril + Regan
Rivallo Son of Cunedagius
Gurgustius Son of Rivallo
Sisillius I
Jago Nephew of G
Kimarcus Son of Sisillius I
Gorboduc Judon

Ferrex + Porrex

Disputed succession

Sons of Gorboduc
Civil war, 5 unnamed kings
Dunvallo Molmutius 40 yrs Son of Cloten, King of Cornwall
Belinus Fought bro, Brennius Son of DM
Gurguit Barbtruc Son of Belinus
Guithelin Marcia
Marcia Widow of Guithelin
Sisillius II Son of G + M
Kinarius Son of S II
Danius Bro of Kinarius
Morvidus Illeg son of Danius
Gorbonianus Eldest son of M
Archgallo Bro of Gorbonianus
Elidurus 5 yrs Bro of Archgallo
Archgallo 10 yrs Crown restored by E
Elidurus Dep by 2 youngest bros
Ingenius + Peredurus 7 yrs I died, P alone Sons of Morvidus
Elidurus Restored
? Son of Gorbonianus
Marganus II Son of Archgallo
Enniaunus 6 yrs dep Bro of M II
Idvallo Son of Ingenius
Runo Son of Peredurus
Gerennus Son of Elidurus
Catellus Son of Gerennus
Millus
Porrex
Cherin
Fulgenius Son of Cherin
Edadus Bro of Fulgenius
Andragius Bro of Edadus
Urianus Son of Andragius
Eliud
Cledaucus
Clotenus
Gurgintius
Merianus
Bledudo
Cap
Oenus
Sisillius III
Beldgabred
Archmail Bro of Beldgabred
Eldol
Redon
Redechius
Samuil
Penessil
Pir
Capoir
Digueillis Son of Capoir
Heli 40 yrs Son of D
Lud Son of Heli
Cassivelaunu(s) (hist Caswallon) C 55 BC Bro of Lud
Tenvantius (hist Tasciovanus) Son of Lud
Cymbeline (hist Cunobelinus) 10 yrs + Son of Tenvantius
Guiderius Son of Cymbeline
Arviragus Bro of G
Marius Son of A
Coilus Son of M
Lucius – AD 156 Son of Coilus

Interregnum

C 150 yrs
Asclepiodotus Elected by the people Duke of Cornwall
Coel ‘Old King Cole’ (hist Coel Hen Godhebog) Killed A Duke of Kaecolim (Colchester)
Constantius Equated with Roman Emperor C I Helen, daughter of Coel
Constantine I RE C the Great Son of Constantius
Octavius Usurper Duke of the Gewissei
Trahern Bro of Coel
Octavius Regained throne
Maximianus Son of Ioelinus, son of Coel Dau of Octavius
Gracianus Freedman, seized power when M died
Constantine II Invited to be king Bro of Aldroenus king of Brittany
Constans Son of C II
Vortigern (hist) Usurped
Vortimer Son of Vortigern
Vortigern Restored
Aurelius Ambrosius Dep V Son of C II
Uther Pendragon Bro of AA
Arthur D 542 Son of Uther
Constantine III A’s cousin; Son of Cador, Duke of Cornwall
Aurelius Conanus 3 yrs Nephew of C III
Vortiporius
Malgo (hist K Maelgwn Gwynedd) Died c 550
Keredic
3 unnamed kings
Cadvan (hist Cadfan ab Iago of Gwynedd) 616-c25
Cadwallo (hist Cadwallon) C 625-33

Geoffrey says 48 yrs

 Son of Cadvan
Cadwallader (hist Cadwaladr Fendigaid) 654-64 Son of Cadwallon

Sep 23

Claudius

Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus

(10 BC – 54 AD)

Titles: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul V, Imperator XXVII, Tribuniciae Potestatis XIV, Pater Patriae

Wives:
Plautia Urgulanilla
Aelia Paetina (28AD)
Valeria Messalina (38AD)
Julia Agrippina (49AD
Children:
Claudius Drusus – Daughter
Claudia – Daughter
Antonia – Daughter
Octavia – Daughter
Britannicus – Son

Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus was born Lugunum in 10 BC, the youngest son of Nero Drusus, brother of Tiberius. He was a strange child and prone to constant illness, not only of the body, but also the mind. Generally, it is believed that he was somewhat retarded and suffered from bouts of irrational behaviour and depression. He also had physical ailments that included a severe stutter and a stoop. He had a nervous tic that caused many at meetings he chaired to find it difficult to contain their laughter at his antics. Furthermore, he was known to be a heavy drinker, often spending several days incapable and incoherent. Even so, he was tall and well-built which gave him a commanding presence to those around him.

He was something of a reject in the family but as he had been born into a family of influence, it was undecided what to do with him. Under Tiberius, he did not hold any official post, and he was only awarded the public distinction of augurate. The only appointment he gained was a consulship given to him by his nephew Gaius when he became emperor.

Claudius succeeded to the throne when Gaius was murdered, Assassination was commonplace when an emperor became disliked by his own people. On witnessing the murder, Claudius believed that he was the next to die, and so he ran to the palace and hid behind curtains in one of the apartments. When he was discovered by a guardsman, he pleaded for his life, promising anything if they spared him. The soldiers thought this was hilarious, as they had not come to kill him, but to proclaim him the new emperor.

The fact that Claudius had the throne did not please the Senate, and the Senators discussed their possible options, as having a dimwit controlling the Roman Empire was not the best idea if the empire was to flourish. The praetorian guard was a powerful institution and easily wielded influence over the government. There was always the fear that anyone who stood against a strong institution would soon find themselves in an early grave. To appease the praetorians, the senate granted Claudius all the imperial powers.

Claudius may not have been the brightest of emperors, but even he knew how to buy the favour of those in authority. He granted the praetorian guard a large gift after he was made emperor, thus ensuring their continued support. Claudius made no secret of all this, and even had gold and silver coins minted to mark that pronounced that is was the guard that had instilled him onto the throne.

In 42 AD, Claudius survived an attempted coup by the governor of the Upper Illyricum, Marcus Furius Camillus Scribonianus. Although the revolt was quelled in the early stages, Claudius realised that the high authorities that he had influenced and controlled had been infiltrated by others bent on his destruction. He instigated a series of measures to increase security and intelligence. This was a wise move, as during the remaining twelve years of his reign as emperor, none of the six further coups succeeded. During this time, no less than 35 senators and up to 300 knights were killed. This did not fare well with the senate, as Claudius was seen as all powerful and beyond any control. He had total autonomy and used his powers to the maximum in the fashion of a dictator, even to the point of reviving the long dead office of censorship, with himself as the highest officer from 47-48 AD.

It was the invasion of Britain in 43 AD that diverted attention from the problems in Rome. He appointed Aulus Plautius to carry out the invasion. In the period from 43-47 AD, southern and central England was overrun by the Roman invaders who renamed the island Britannia.

For the decisive capture of the English capital of Camulodunum, Claudius ordered that the Roman legions were not to enter the town until he arrived, and it was he who was to be the first to set foot in the capital.

Although Claudius may have been retarded to a certain degree, he showed signs of cunning and wisdom in many ways. He introduced systems whereby enlisted soldiers could rise rapidly through the ranks. Roman auxiliary soldiers who retired after 25 years service were awarded bronze diplomas to give them total Roman citizenship, so recognising the service they had given to the Roman military. This made sure they were catered for in their retirement by making sure they had a decent pension, a house and land. There are indications that this system was already in place, but Claudius widened the scope of it so that more soldiers benefited from the advantages.

He relaxed the conditions for entry into the senate by abolishing the rule that potential senators had to be Italian by birth to qualify. This was met with scorn by the Italian nobility as they saw it as a method of diluting their grip on power. This, along with accusations of giving preference to foreigners in Roman matters, made him some bitter enemies.

The Greeks and the Jews of Alexandria had been in a bloody dispute for many years, and each sent a delegation to Claudius to see if he could bring about a settlement to the matter. Claudius response was impartial to say the least.

As for the question which party was responsible for the riots and feud (or rather, if the truth be told, the war) with the Jews. I was unwilling to make a strict inquiry, though guarding within me a store of immutable indignation against whichever party renews the conflict; and I tell you once and for all that unless you put a stop to this ruinous and obstinate enmity against each other, I shall be driven to show what a benevolent princeps can be when turned to righteous indignation.

His reforms spread far and wide and included the judicial system of the Roman Empire. Up till now, only the wealthy could afford lawyers, and so cases were often decided by whoever had the most expensive, and therefore, the most knowledgeable legal team. Claudius brought in methods to speed up the legal processes and made legal representation more widely available for the less affluent members of society.

He was married four times. The first to Plautia Urgulanilla, an Etruscan. He divorced her and married Aelia Paetina, which was a short marriage. His third wife was Valeria Messalina, whom he married when she was just 14, the minimum Roman age for a legal marriage. He was by now 49 years old. The fourth wife (who was probably his murderer) was 34 when he married her 10 years later.

Claudius died in October 54 AD at the age of 64. Like so many emperors before, Claudius did not die a natural death, the most accepted cause being a meal of poisoned mushrooms given to him by Julia Agrippina, his fourth wife. The main reason was probably because she tired of his style of leadership and wanted him to be replaced by here son, Nero, which came about after the death of Claudius.

Sep 23

Augustus

Augustus (Gaius Octavius)
Emperor : 31BC – 14AD

Titles: Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul XIII, Imperator XXI, Tribuniciae Potestatis XXXVII, Pater Patriae

Wives :
Claudia (43BC) Scribonia (40BC) Livia Drusilla (38BC)
Children :
 Julia – Daughter

Gaius Octavius Augustus was born in 63BC into a wealthy family of knights (equites) in Velitrae, south-east of Rome. His father had been the first member of his family to achieve the status of senator. Later he went on to become a practor, thereby giving his son high standards to follow. When he died in 59BC, Augustus’ mother, who was the niece of Julius Caesar, took over his upbringing and guided him into his career in Roman politics.

His career in the political field was mainly due to his family connections rather than political competence, but it was a most incredible turn of events that caused him to become emperor.

In 44BC, Julius Caesar was assassinated by Brutus and Cassius. It was when Caesar’s will was read that it was discovered that Augustus had been adopted as Caesar’s son and had been given the throne of Rome. Caesar could not have foreseen his assassination, so Augustus had become Emperor at, in political circles, the young age of eighteen. In honour of his new-found father, Augustus changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar. Against strong advice and pleading from his family and those around him, Augustus took the throne and began the hunt for those he held responsible for Caesar’s death. Eighteen was such a young age to ascend to the throne, it was feared that he would not have the experience and knowledge to handle the plotting and intrigue that abounded in the Roman senate.

His first action was to try and persuade Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), who had been Caesar’s main and most trusted supporter, to give him Caesar’s assets and documents, both personal and political. Antonius refused to do this and so Caesar’s legacies had to be given to the Roman public In retribution, Augustus organised the “Games of the Victory of Caesar” in an attempt to gain the support of the Roman public.

In his autobiography, he wrote :

On the very day of my games, a comet was seen in the northern part of the sky for seven days. It appeared about the eleventh hour of the day and was clearly visible in all countries. The young people believed that by that star it was signified that the soul of Caesar was received among the immortal gods, on which account the sign of a star was attached to the head of the statue which I shortly consecrated in the Forum.

He followed this in 42BC by announcing that Julius Caesar be given the posthumous status of a god of the Roman state. As did Caesar, Augustus set up the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus. Dictators were not popular with the Roman Senate, and Augustus had to be careful about whom he trusted. He was aware he was following the same path as Caesar had taken, and also of the brutal end that Caesar had suffered. Augustus had to ensure he did not leave office in the same manner. One method he employed of helping his image, was set about re-inventing Caesar, by playing down his weaknesses and praising his god status. Being the adopted son of a god was one way of bringing fear into the hearts of his enemies. No-one was going to publicly argue with anyone of such a high standing.

With the dictatorship now well and truly established, Augustus began to dispose of his opponents. He used every method he could think of, treachery, corruption, murder. One way or another, anyone who opposed him had to be hounded out of Rome or killed. He was not going to allow anybody who openly criticised him to stay in office.

This Second Triumvirate was slightly different to the first, as the power was in the hands of three men, not one. Therein lay the weakness of this dictatorship. With three power crazed individuals all vying for control, friction was imminent. This finally came to a head at the battle of Actium in which Augustus was seen to be the winner on all counts.

From there he went on to consolidate his power by taking consulships for himself, keeping them year after year to make sure no-one could challenge his power. He changed the constitution many times to make it appear he was allowing others some of the reins of power, but the more experienced of the senate could see that these were just conjuring tricks designed to give a false sense of security.

There was another aspect that Augustus exploited to the full. The people of the Roman Empire had tired of all the civil wars, and were eager to allow Augustus to reign as he promised them peace and stability.

This he did and showed his mastery of image making by making himself more accessible to the people, as Caesar had done. Even a dictator had to show respect for his subjects if he were to retain power. He was often seen walking the streets alone at night, conversing openly and politely with anyone who approached him. His morning receptions were open to anyone regardless of status, provided they held Roman citizenship, of course. His meetings with these people became popular, as this gave the grassroots citizens a chance to air their views to someone with power. This was a mean feat of marketing.

Even so, the power he held brought a constant fear and uneasiness to his life. This is displayed shown in his sleep pattern, which is recorded as erratic due to the constant nightmares he endured. A sure sign of someone stressed. His problems with sleep did not end there. If he had a couple of bad nights, he would habitually nod off during official business and have to be prodded by an aide to return to alertness.

As with most ambitious people, Augustus was power crazed in his personal life as well. Despite being husband to Livia, he had many mistresses, many of whom were married themselves.

Suetonius wrote of him:

He was very handsome and most graceful at all stages of his life, although he cared nothing for any sort of refinery. He was so uninterested in how his hair was dressed that he would set several barbers to work at once in a hurry, and he would have his beard clipped at one time and shaved at another, and while the barbers were working he would read or even write something. His expression both when he was talking and in silence was so calm and mild that a certain Gallic noble confessed to his own countrymen that it had softened him and prevented him from his plan of hurling Augustus over a precipice when, during a crossing of the Alps, he had been allowed to approach him under the pretext of talking with him.

Augustus’ eyes were clear and bright, and he liked men to think that there was a sort of divine power in them. He was very pleased if anyone at whom he looked keenly lowered his face as if before the light of the sun. In old age he did not see very well with his left eye. His teeth were widely separated, small and dirty. His hair was slightly curly and yellowish. His ears were small. His nose protruded somewhat at the top and bent inwards at the bottom. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short, but this was disguised by the good proportions of his figure and only apparent if someone taller stood beside him.

The strain of power must also have affected his health as it is recorded he limped, suffered from abscesses on his liver, a bad case of acne, worms, and bleeding from the anus. (caused by use of a scraper to remove the worms.) He also had extreme discomfort when urinating from stones in his bladder which were painful when he passed them, and in cold weather had severe chest problems.

But there was a curious pattern to some of his illnesses. They seemed to come on, just before the start of a battle in which he was to have taken part, and he miraculously when the battle had ended. To dispel the rumours of cowardice and hypochondria that spread, he took part in two campaigns. Dalmatia (35-33BC) and Spain (27-25BC) in which he was wounded in both.

In later years. Mental problems beset Augustus. By the ripe age of 71, he did not wash or groom himself and was seen many times to be hitting his head against a wall. Gradually, his health deteriorated and on 14th August 14AD, he caught a cold on a night journey by ship. Even in such a month reputed for warm evenings and despite the comfortable conditions lived in, he succumbed to ill health. On the 19th August he died aged 77.

Despite the lessons he had learned from the reign of Caesar, one fact emerged. He never learnt that successful people trust others and delegate tasks to them. As with Caesar, he thought he could do it all himself. Overwork. The killer of so many powerful people in history had claimed another victim.

 

Sep 23

Vespasian

Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus)
Lived: 9 – 79AD Emperor: 69 – 79AD

Titles: Imperator Vespasianus Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul IX,
Imperator XX, Tribuniciae Potestatis X, Pater Patriae

Wives :
Flavia Domitilla
Children :
Titus – Son
Domitian – Son
Flavia Domitilla – Daughter

Born in the year 9 at Reate, north of Rome, Vespasian was the son of a tax collector, Flavius Sabinus and his wife, Vespasia Polla. He joined the military and achieved the rank of legionary commander, serving under Claudius during the invasion of Britain in 43AD. His part in the campaign was significant, for which he was awarded the insignia of a Triumph along with two priesthoods.

At 40, he became a praetor and two years later a consul, rising to become African Proconsul in 63. His style of leadership was highly commended as he did not succumb to the temptation of others in authority to abuse their position by taking a portion of the taxes to increase his own wealth. Corruption of this nature was rife in the Roman Empire, as many saw their position of trust to secure a healthy lifestyle. Because of his attitude, he lived modestly by Roman standards and nearly became bankrupt, but was saved by the intervention of his brother.

In February 67, he took the post of governor of Judea, where he suppressed the First Jewish Revolt. By the summer of 68, most of the country was again under Roman control. He was ready to take Jerusalem, when he heard of Nero’s suicide on 9th June and so abandoned the plans. Then the empire took a sudden turn for the worse, when the new emperor, Galba was murdered in January 69, and his successor, Otho committed suicide in April the same year.

Fearing a backlash that would be felt throughout the empire, he formed alliances with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria and Tiberius Julius Alexander from Egypt. Openly the three men hailed the new emperor, Vitellius, but secretly made plans of their own. Of the three, Vespasian was the only one who would be accepted to become an emperor. Mucianus was a Jew, and something of a revolutionary, while Alexander did not have any sons. It was essential for an emperor to have at last one heir to the throne, and if there were none by marriage, then they would adopt a son.

On 1st July 69, Alexander gave orders to all those under him to pledge allegiance to Vespasian in his attempt to take the throne. The armies in Judea and Syria soon followed in the same fashion, which gave Vespasian a strong following. Mucianus gathered about 20,000 troops and began the long trek to Rome intending to claim the throne for Vespasian, who controlled the situation from the eastern part of the empire. The military in Gaul added their support and under Marcus Antonius Primus, they also marched to Rome. Of the two, Primus reached Rome first. There were pitch battles in the streets between those loyal to Vespasian, the aggressor and the current emperor. One mistake Vespasian made was to leave his brother in Rome. The emperor’s forces seized him and had him slain.

This too was a mistake, as he would have been a fine hostage with which to pressurise Vespasian. Undaunted, Primus took Rome on 21st December 69, having captured and killed Vitellians. Mucianus arrived shortly afterwards and was angry with Primus for acting on his own without the authority of Vespasian to enter Rome. Despite this indiscretion, Primus was honoured and returned to Tolosa, leaving Mucianus to hold power pending the arrival of Vespasian. During this period, Mucianus carried out a programme of executions of all those who opposed the new emperor, including Vitellians’ son.

Of those who remained alive and swore allegiance to Vespasian, they were followed and watched to ensure their support was genuine, and they did not mix with any dissidents or hatch their own plots. Vespasian finally went to Rome in late 70AD, where he took Mucianus as his personal advisor, but did not allow him to hold any office of power. After such a violent ascension to the throne, Vespasian embarked on a campaign of peace which saw an end to the civil wars. Fighting on all fronts was ended with swift and total victories, which meant Vespasian could now set about reorganising the military. He separated the legions and put them around the empire in small camps to avoid the possibility of them joining in a coordinated attack to topple him. It was now the empire enjoying a period of peace.

The military was not the only possible threat to his rule. The senate too had many members who could cause him considerable torment. So in 74, he took the role of censor among his other tasks, which enabled him to have complete control over the senate. The main stumbling block he had to face was the financial state of the empire. After the civil wars of 68-69, the money supply had been seriously eroded, and he had to find new ways to raise revenue to fund his plans. Whereas war with other countries gave the Romans new territory, workers, slaves and property, civil war only served to drain the money supply as nothing could be gained in the areas of land etc. This he achieved by raising taxes considerably and cracking down on those who avoided their dues.

By now, successive emperors had leaned the value of persuasion over suppression and Vespasian was to demonstrate this by making himself approachable and sympathetic to the people. But eventually, ill health took a hold on the emperor. He knew he was dying and so retired to his home at Aquae Cutiliae, near to where he had been born, and awaited the inevitable. He died on 24th June 79AD.

Sep 23

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar
Lived: 100BC – 44BC

Ask anyone to name a famous Roman character, and the name of Julius Caesar is sure to be the most popular answer. Although he failed twice to conquer Britain, he still became an icon of Rome. So how did this man manage to become a legend?

Before a short account of his life, we need to look at the man himself. Only then can we see how he managed to become so revered.

He was a tall man, with broad shoulders, dark eyes and blond hair. He is often portrayed as wearing a laurel wreath on his head, which he said was to emphasise his presence. In reality, it was to help hide his baldness.

Julius Caesar had the personality to win over anyone to his way of thinking. He was a true leader, in that he led from the front, often at the head of his army as they went into battle. Nothing seemed to deter him in his single mindedness and push for success. It is said he had a method of inspiring his troops to give their all in any situation. This he did by leading from the front, and he would be the first to swim across a river ahead of his soldiers, and so instil confidence in his leadership. If he could do it, so could they. He was a keen horseman. Skilful with the sword and had boundless energy and enthusiasm which motivated those around him.

At parties and gatherings, he was the centre of attention. Airing his knowledge and showing a ready wit and humour that made him popular. He could charm the ladies, and leave the men awed by his personality and intellect. Along with the laurel wreath, he was a snappy dresser. His purple senatorial tunic had full-length sleeves added which had fringes at the cuffs. Something unknown of in Roman times.

His personality was such that it enthused a complete will to win in his armies.  As we shall see later, he took a massive amount of land for the empire, and himself. He knew he valued of communication at all levels and would be seen wandering among the ranks and foot soldiers, asking their opinions and noting their gripes. It was this accessibility and personal contact that made him so popular with his men. Considering his enormous military skills, it ensured a willing following.

Gaius Julius Caesar was born in 100BC to a family that was not part of the upper levels of society. In the days before attitudes changed, only certain classes could have attained the high level of authority. So on the surface, he was not emperor material.

Caesar began his career with various minor postings in the Roman administration, where he gradually endeared himself to those around him with his intellect, charm and communication skills. He had, what we know today as, charisma. This is the one attribute that can compensate for a lack of natural talent.

Early in his career, he saw an opportunity for social advancement in the form of a lady named Cinna. She was the daughter of the famous General Marius, a legend himself to the Romans. Caesar married her and in 76BC, Cinna gave birth to a daughter, Julia. Marrying Cinna gave him status and would help is advancement in society and government.

In 63BC, he achieved the status of Chief Priest after forming an alliance with an influential military commander, Pompey and Crassus, another man of power who had considerable wealth. This was helped by the marriage, at an incredibly early age, of his daughter Julia to Pompey.

He had planned to use this friendship as a means of entering the Senate of Rome, but in 60BC, he was shunned, even though he was now governor of Spain. So he established the First Triumvirate, with Pompey and Crassus, thereby securing a path to further his aims. He had created a republic within the Roman Empire.  In 59BC, he gained his first consulship and so became the ruthless dictator he had always dreamed of being. He regarded himself as all-powerful, even to the extent of ignoring instructions and vetoes from Rome.

This did not stop him from advancing the cause of the empire, and in 58BC he began a campaign that took him across central and northern Gaul, gathering territory as he went.

In 55 and 54BC, he made two attempts to cross the channel and take Britain, but these were such disasters, they are regarded today, not as attempted invasions, but mere expeditions.

Then in 54BC, Julia died suddenly at the age of 22. This caused a strain in the relationship between Caesar and Pompey, which was worsened by the slaying of Crassus by the Parthians, who were sworn enemies of Rome. In 49BC, civil war broke out between the followers of Caesar and Pompey, which ended the Republic.  Wherever Pompey fled, Caesar’s armies followed him. Eventually, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was killed on the orders of King Ptolemy XIII.

Caesar then went on into Egypt. He captured the half-sister of the Egyptian King and took her as his mistress and Queen. The Alexandrian War he fought against the Egyptians was a success for him, resulting in the taking of a great deal of land and the death of Ptolemy.

From there he moved to Asia Minor, taking the throne of King Pharnaces. It was here the immortal phrase ‘I came. I saw. I conquered.’ was attributed to Caesar. However, the pressures of power grew too great, even for a man with such vitality. He became irritable and erratic. It is said he was in conversation with a soldier, who was airing his grievances, when he suddenly ordered the soldier be executed, which was done.

His health began to deteriorate, and he had bouts of dizziness and sickness. There were times when he was incoherent, given to convulsing violently. All symptoms that we associate today with epilepsy. Gradually, his mind lost its edge and his ideas were erratic. His thinking was not so lucid, his moods going from high exaltation to deep blackness. He complained of sleeplessness and horrific nightmares when he did manage to sleep.  It has been commented that these are the signs of manic depression and Alzheimer’s’s. This was undoubtedly brought on by extreme overwork and his desire to fulfil his relentless ambitions at all costs

In later years, his image on coins and pottery showed a man aged well beyond his 51 years. He was haggard and drawn, showing the signs of strain. Here was a man driving himself to an early grave.

In between all the warmongering, he took on a series of reforms, mostly unpopular, that would change the course of the empire. These were not well received and a gang of sixty conspirators was formed to remove him from office. Perhaps, the final act that secured his fate was his appointment as perpetual dictator in February 44BC. Although Caesar had managed to create such a powerful image for the people, the governing classes did not like the changes he brought to the empire. They wanted things back to the way they used to be.

On 15th March the same year, he was infamously slain by his enemies in what had become known as ‘The Ides of March’.

Sep 23

Cerialis Petillius

Cerialis Petillius

Quintus Petillius Cerialis Caesius Rufus was the son-in-law of Vespasian Cerialis and became Governor of Britain in AD.71; his instructions were plainly to move the conquest forward, and he brought with him a new legion, II Adiutrix, which had recently been recruited from members of the fleet at Ravenna. It would seem reasonable to suppose that part, at least, of this unit was based at Chester, to convey troops up the coast of north-west England. Once again, it is not easy to trace the movements of Cerialis’ campaign archaeologically, although coinage and Samian pottery help, and dendrochronology has recently highlighted two probable military sites of this period, Ribchester and Carlisle. Tacitus provides one extra clue – that Cerialis divided his army between himself and Agricola, who was commander of legion XX Valeria Victrix at Wroxeter. Considering this, it would not seem unreasonable to suppose that Cerialis operated east of the Pennines with his old legion (the ninth), whilst Agricola ‘mirrored’ his commander’s actions on the western side of the country.

It has been written that Tacitus loathed Cerialis; certainly, he does not go out of his way to load the man with praise for his achievements either in Britain or elsewhere. The historian does nonetheless admit that under Cerialis much of the Brigantian territory was conquered, or at least fought over, though he has to add that the fighting was not uncostly. Professor Anthony Bidey has argued that Tacitus’ dislike of Cerialis may have stemmed from Cerialis’ part in AD. 83, along with his brother-in-law, the emperor Domitian, in the removal of Agricola from the governorship of Britain. This may have contributed, but another cause suggests itself: in AD. 60-61, both Cerialis and Agricola were in Britain, the former as commander (legatus) of legion IX (which received something of a mauling), the latter as a military tribune (tribunus militum) evidently on the staff of the governor, Suetonius Paullinus. In the aftermath of the rebellion, it is likely that Cerialis and Agricola found themselves on opposite sides of an exceedingly acrimonious post-mortem. In temper, too, the two men were very different: Cerialis, highly placed, an opportunist and a risk-taker (not always successfully); Agricola, efficient, methodical, and perhaps a little colourless – or, as he has recently been described, a ‘modest achiever’. Envy for the latter, regarding the former, is not unknown in the human condition.

It would appear that the western advance was again on two fronts, overland from sites such as Wroxeter and Littlechester, crossing the Mersey near Wilderspool, the Ribble at Walton-le-Dale, and probably establishing a fort on the Lune at Lancaster. From Lancaster, the Lune and Eden valleys were followed to Carlisle. The eastern route established a new fortress for legion IX at York, and reached perhaps as far as Corbridge, although some at least of Cerialis’ troops must have crossed Stainmore to meet up with Agricola’s. The fleet, too, will have played its part, taking troops to the Mersey and the Ribble with a disembarkation-site at Kirkham, which in Roman times was much closer to the water than it now is, and from which it was a straightforward advance to Ribchester. That Chester was the base for this seems clear, though it should be noted that Chester was not, until Agricola’s own governorship, a base for a land-based advance. Indeed, it has been observed that the road northwards from Whitchurch originally crossed the Dee at Farndon/Holt, the extension to Chester being secondary to this.

Each side of the Pennines also saw the separation of people whom the Romans evidently chose to protect: in the east, the coastal Parisi were separated from their Brigantian neighbours, whilst in the north-west, a road from Carlisle to Maryport (or perhaps Beckfoot) through Blennerhasset separated the good agricultural land of the Solway Plain, evidently the territory of the Carvetii – from the Brigantian hill-farmers. These provide good examples of the policy of ‘divide-and-rule’, with which Tacitus credits Cerialis in Germany and Agricola in Britain during his own governorship.

Again, it seems likely that Cerialis’ troops advanced into Scotland: the objective here may have been, in part at least, the protection of the grain-producing land of the Votadini and Venicones in the east, on either side of the Firth of Forth. Coin evidence suggests that Cerialis advanced northwards from Carlisle to Newstead, Cramond and Camelon, and from there perhaps as far as Strageath. If, indeed, Cerialis is to be traced that far north, it does not seem unreasonable, considering what had been done elsewhere, to suggest that he may have inaugurated the Gask Ridge watchtowers, as a way of separating the coastal Venicones from their inland neighbours.

Sep 23

Caratacus

Caratacus

Prince of the Catuvellauni

Myths

His Family

Grandfather Tasciovanus.

Father Cunobelinus, was said to have been the first British statesman, and generally opposed the Druidic anti-Roman faction of which his two sons Togodumnus and Caratacus were active members. His sudden enfeeblement in c. AD40 led to a very sudden change in the balance of power in the south-east of England due to the actions of his sons, particularly Caratacus. He died possibly as late as c. AD43, after a long illness which made him incapable of ruling effectively.

Uncle Epaticcus, became king of the Atrebates after forcing Verica off the throne c. AD10. Verica, however, fought back and killed the usurper, making an enemy of Caratacus, who had based his coins on those produced by this favoured uncle! He seemed to have formed an attachment to his uncle Epaticcus, for he based his own coin issues – silver minims inscribed CARA – on those of his father’s brother, and their distribution in lands formerly of the Atrebates, is closely similar in pattern to those of Epaticcus. It is quite possible that he accompanied him during his campaigns against Verica of the Atrebates from c.AD25 until his death c.AD35. Following the enfeeblement of his father c.AD40, he supplanted his elder brother Adminius from his throne in Durovernon. He then joined forces with his other brother Togodumnus c.AD41 to renew the campaign against Verica of the Atrebates, who had caused the death of his beloved uncle.

AD35. Two factions emerge at the court of the ageing British king Cunobelinus (Cymbeline): the pro-Roman faction, under his son Adminius, and the anti-Roman faction, under his sons Togodumnus and Caractacus (Caradog) Brother Togodumnus, inherited the Catuvellaunian kingdom north of the Thames, probably because he was the eldest of the two Catuvellaunian princes.

Brother Adminius, possibly the eldest son of Cunobelinus, had his kingdom in the north-east tip of Kent forcibly taken from him for by Caratacus in c. AD41, most likely because of his pro-Roman tendencies. He then crossed the channel and tried to persuade Caligula to invade.

Personal History

After the death of his father Cunobelin, the majority of the Catuvellauni tribal lands fell into the hands of his elder brother Togodumnus. Caratacus was inclined or encouraged to recapture the lands previously taken by his uncle Epaticcus, and subsequently regained by king Verica of the Atrebates. Friends in the Durotriges and Dobunni tribes may well have connived to help him to take over much of the south-east of England, to the loss of Verica and the Atrebates. It is known that he set up camp and issued coin near Guildford during this time.

Before very long, he managed to depose Verica from the Atrebatean throne and forced him to flee to Gaul, wherefrom the old king made his way to Rome and appeared as a suppliant before the emperor Claudius in c.AD42. This was possibly the undoing of Celtic Britain, as it is likely that Adminius was instrumental in persuading the ageing emperor to seek the glory he needed to firmly establish his hand at the helm of the Roman Empire by conducting an expedition there.

Following the crushing defeat at the Battle of the Medway and the loss of his respected elder brother Togodumnus, Caratacus abandoned Camulodunum and fled the south-east of Britain. He removed his family and retinue to Wales, where his reputation as a fearless warrior soon established him as leader of the Welsh tribes (Silures, Demetae, Ordovices and Deceangli).

Operating from the lands of the Silures in the south-eastern part of Wales, he carried out a well-timed attack deep into the Roman held territory of Gloucestershire. The Roman governor, Ostorius Scapula managed to restore order and push Caratacus’ forces back across the River Severn, he also realised the need to eliminate the threat from Caratacus in the west and to halt the advance northwards.

As a prelude to his campaigns against Caratacus, Scapula moved the Twentieth Legion Valeria from its recently built fortress at Camulodunum to an establish a new one at Glevum (Gloucester) to guard the lower Severn. A colonia of veteran troops were left behind in Camulodunum as a reserve force, occupying the abandoned fortress. The Second Legion Augusta was then used to strike across the Severn deep into the Silurian heartlands.

In response, Caratacus moved his centre of operations from Silurian territory in southern Wales to the lands of the Ordovices in mid-Wales. Scapula reacted by building another fortress at Viroconium, re-grouping the Fourteenth Legion Gemina there as a second base of operations. The wooded and hilly terrain in Wales had up to now helped Caratacus’ forces with its guerilla tactics to seriously hamper the Romans’ advance, the establishment of the Viroconium base enabled Scapula to trap the British forces in a two-pronged attack, using the Second Legion from the south and the Fourteenth from the north.

Caratacus’ forces were finally beaten in c.AD50 by a frontal assault by ‘Roman legions’ up a steep slope. Caratacus fled north-east into the Pennines and Brigantia, and his defeated army melted back into the hills of Wales from which it had been raised.

” Bran, or Brennus, the father of Caradoc, was the son of Llyr, brother of Cynvelin, surnamed llyr Llediaith, from the foreign accent imparted to the pronunciation of his native tongue by his education under Augustus at Rome. During the threatened invasion of Augustus he commanded the British fleet in the Channel. In 36 AD Bran resigned the Silurian crown to Caradoc, and became Arch-Druid to the Silurians. Caradoc had three sons, Cyllin or Cyllinus, Lleyn or Linus, and Cynon, and two daughters, Eurgain and Gladys, or Claudia.”

The Brigantian queen Cartimandua had been recognised as a client of Rome, and she now honoured her agreement with Rome by deceiving and capturing Caratacus, and then handing him over to Scapula’s forces. Caratacus was betrayed to the Romans in AD 52. The wife of Caradoc and his daughter Gladys also fell into the hands of the Romans.

He was paraded in Triumph by Claudius before the populace of Rome, and acted with such dignity and fearlessness that he was spared the customary death by strangulation and allowed to live there with his family.

Caratacus was highly influenced by the Druids, and both he and his brother Togodumnus were among the leading lights of the British anti-Roman faction, supported by the Druidical order.

In Rome Caradoc took up his residence in the Palatium Britannicum, on the side of the Mons Sacer, converted later by his granddaughter, Claudia Pudentia, into the first Christian church at Rome. ‘

We have now in AD 56 the Royal Silurian family located at Rome. But the loss of Caratacus didn’t end the war. The Silures elected his cousin Arviragus to succeed him and in the words of Tacitus ;- ‘In Britain, after the captivity of Caractacus, the Romans were repeatedly conquered and put to the rout by the single state of the Silures alone.’ – Tac. Ann., lib. v. c. 28.

It wasn’t until 75 AD, during the reign of Vespasian, that the Roman general Frontinus finally completed the subjugation of the Silures. A series of forts were built throughout Silurian territory to ensure continuing obedience.

The Caratacus Stone (Grid Ref: SS889336): Set on Withypool common, the Caratacus Stone leans towards a dry gutter running into a rush-filled bog from which runs a stream. It may have been a Bronze Age stream-head stone or erected by Caratacus’s clansman in the 5th or 6th century BCE, alternatively it could have been a stream-head stone inscribed later. The latin inscription “Carataci Nepus” means clansman of Caratacus the Chief of the Silures beaten by the Romans in CE46. The stone stood near the mediaeval “greatway” and was first documented in 1219 as a Forest boundary and called the “Langeston”. In 1936, it was moved to one side, supposedly by someone searching for treasure reputed to be beneath it but never found. Its shelter was built in 1906 to try to protect it.

Sep 23

Cartimandua

Cartimandua

Queen of the Brigantes

Many people know the story of Queen Boudica’s rebellion against the Romans. Fewer people realise that Yorkshire, and much of northern Britain was also ruled by a queen, the most powerful ruler in Britain in fact. Her name was Cartimandua (c. 43 to c. 70 AD), and she ruled over an association of clans and tribes called the Brigantes. At the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, Cartimandua and her Prince Regent Venutius, ruled over an area covering all of current Yorkshire, at its south-western corner was Chester, its southern boundary was Leicester, the boundary then moved east to Newark and Doncaster. From Doncaster the Brigantian territory ran through York and on to Scarborough, then up to Newcastle and the northern frontier ran over to Carlisle. Venutius was a Prince of the Carvetii tribe, who occupied modern-day Cumbria. It is likely that the marriage between Venutius and Cartimandua brought about the inclusion of the Carvetii into the Brigantes federation.

Before their conquest, Rome had established many trade links with the British tribes and had understood the importance of the Brigantes to their plans, which at the time were for a partial annexation of Britain, Brigantia as an ally would ensure a peaceful northern border from the coast to coast. After their invasion in AD 43, and the subsequent rout of Caratacus’ army, the Roman’s agreed a treaty with Cartimandua and the other defeated royal families of Britain. The outcome was to make Brigantia a client state of Rome and therefore part of the Roman Empire. It is also likely that Venutius fought alongside the Romans in the suppression of any dissenting British tribes between 43 and 47 AD.

When the Romans arrived in the first century, they found the vast Brigantian tribal federation in the neck of Britain organised under Queen Cartimandua whose seat is unknown but likely to be in the Leeds/Manchester/York triangle. Cartimandua’s husband was acknowledged as king, assuming the role of the Brigantian warlord. The Roman historian Tacitus (Annals 12.40, 2-7; Histories 3.45; Koch 1995:39-40) specifically acknowledges that it was Cartimandua, the living symbol of Brigantia, who held the ultimate power among the Brigantes and had an active role in choosing her husband/warlord. Indeed, it has been suggested that the Welsh word for king, brenin is derived from brigantinos meaning the consort of Brigantia.

Initially, Brigantia prospered as a client state and grew wealthy. However, dissent reared its head both inside and outside the kingdom. Internally, Venutius was not happy with Cartimandua’s increasingly open relationship with Vellocatus, his armour bearer. Externally, the Roman peace offered in AD 43 was proving to be more painful to the British population than expected. In particular, Rome had sworn to destroy the Druids, the main religious, educational and law giving order in Britain.

Around 47 AD, a rebellion in Brigantia distracts the Romans from their advance to Anglesey. This revolt could have been the first indications as to the extent relations had broken down with Venutius, a targeted strike to hurt Cartimandua, as well as giving the pro-druid forces a chance to re-group. The rebellion was put down mercilessly, this was the second rebellion in Scapula’s territory entire tribal units will have been slain.

Thus began the feud in the Royal household of Brigantia, Venutius no doubt set to brooding, plotting how he could exact revenge on Cartimandua and Vellocatus

Cartimandua was greatly troubled by the outbreak of rebellion – she knew from recent experience that to survive she had to emulate King Cogidubnus in the south. His tribe fully embraced the Romans, and he had retained and enhanced his wealth. A leader who could not control her people was of no use to the Romans and plenty of enemies would take her place.

Elsewhere in Britain Caratacus, son of King Cunobelinus, after his defeat in the south-east had moved west and was the focus of the Celtic resistance based in Wales. In 50 AD, Caratacus was defeated in North Wales (very close to the power centre of the Druids – Anglesey) and travelled to Cartimandua to ask for protection and help with the war with Rome. This indicates that he was reasonably confident that Cartimandua would be willing to listen to him and there are two explanations; Cartimandua was a relative; Cartimandua or Venutius had let it be known that they were having second thoughts about the relationship with Rome. In any event, Caratacus’ confidence was unfounded and Cartimandua had him and those that travelled with them handed over to the Romans. Tacitus credited Cartimandua’s capture of Caratacus as “having secured the most important component of Emperor Claudius’ triumph”. It may have been this incident which finally caused the break between Venutius and Cartimandua, not long afterwards, Venutius started building a hill fort at Stanwick, which was eventually to become the site of the largest battle with Rome in British history.

After 51 AD, Cartimandua formally divorced Venutius and took as her husband Vellocatus (“better in battle”). However, this was no simple divorce for, by this action, her new husband became king. Tacitus recorded that the divorce and remarriage prompted a civil war among the Brigantes because the majority of the people preferred Venutius as king. Yet, Cartimandua’s will prevailed, “favouring the illegitimate husband [Vellocatus] were the queen’s libido and her ferocious temper” (Tacitus).

Emboldened by this show of loyalty by the Brigantes Venutius gathered strength at Stanwick, welcoming all the disenchanted to join his band, his sole aim to get back at Cartimandua, perhaps he also saw a future as a British hero, like his old friend Caratacus. Gradually Venutius formed alliances and gained control of Cartimandua’s most northern tribes. Losses that she carefully hid from the Romans, knowing that any intervention from them could see her last days on the throne.

Cartimandua was capable of such behaviour because she was a living representative of the goddess of sovereignty, Brigantia. According to Anne Ross, “Cartimandua’s powerful role in Roman times may suggest that society recognised the power of the goddess by mirroring her authority in its own temporal ruler. . . . This particular goddess may have been as much concerned with the actual tribal hegemony as with the territory” (Ross 1996:456). According to Patrick Ford, horses were intimately associated with goddesses of sovereignty (Ford 1977: 8-10). Cartimandua may have inherited this role since her name literally means, “sleek pony” (Ross 1996:449).

Although Venutius had previously fought on the side of the Romans, he now turned to the anti-Roman faction among the Brigantes for support and ignited a civil war. Cartimandua took several of his family hostage, indicating she had military success (hostages were normally taken by the victors to assure future peace and the payment of tributes). In response Venutius attacked and laid siege to her capital. Eventually, Cartimandua was rescued by Roman cohorts after several attempts and with notable losses.

By AD 60 Cartimandua had lost control of a significant portion of her territory to her ex-husband Venutius, strangely this would not have happened without Rome’s presence, since the Druids could no longer enforce her rights as sovereign. It is likely that Venutius’ southern border ran from Blackburn to Ripon through to Hartlepool. Furthermore, he had strengthened relationships with anti-roman tribes of Northern Britain; Novantae and Selgovae. To better defend Cartimandua the Romans pushed northwards with their front line and had set a new line of forts running from Northwich through Brough on Noe to the Humber. The war continued for the next eight years, Venutius’ policy of only attacking Romans in Brigantian territory, along with Nero’s increasing unwillingness to extend his forces in Britain, allowed Venutius to strengthen his grip on Brigantia.

Some time among the Brigantes until Venutius was on the eve of victory. With Cartimandua in a compromised position, the Romans intervened to save their ally several times. Roman intervention saved Cartimandua but eventually, her actions gave the Romans an excuse to conquer Brigantia. The Romans could not tolerate the long Brigantian border in the hands of a hostile king who could not only attack the south himself but also harbour Roman enemies from the south. To the Brigantian’s, the fault for their conquest by the Romans would have fallen squarely on the shoulders of Cartimandua and the war between her husbands.

In AD 68, dissent caused by Nero’s apparent favouring of Greece over Rome spread to Gaul, and C. julius Vindex, a Romanized Gaul, the Governor of Gallia Lugdunensis began a revolt against Nero and was able to raise 100,000 men from several Gallic tribes, and it has been suggested that Venutius may have supported the movement (Venutius’ camp at Stanwick seems well supplied with Roman aid).

Later, in AD69 when Emperor Nero died, a struggle broke out among the powerful men of the Roman Empire to decide who would be his successor. This left a power vacuum which Venutius exploited to stage a rebellion on the side of one of the opposing Roman factions, which resulted in Cartimandua again needing to be evacuated to safe territory. The new Emperor, however, now saw Venutius and the rest of Gallic (Celtic) Britain a legitimate enemy and Brigantia was annexed as part of the Roman thrust northwards between AD 70 and 73.

Cartimandua is not heard of after AD70.

Classical travel writers were rarely interested in the lives of women, and so lesbianism gets little mention (though it probably existed on an equal footing with male homosexual activity.) However, there is one interesting insight into the lives of women from the Brigantes (and most likely many other) tribes. Caesar’s wife is reported, by Strabo, as having a conversation with a noblewoman of the Brigantes. Caesar’s wife upbraids the woman for the shockingly overt way in which British women take lovers and flaunt their conquests. The aristocrat responds acidly by pointing out that while Roman women consort secretly with the very worst of men, British women give themselves openly to only the very best of men! Rome appears to have shared the unusual approach of the Spartans in that the true disgrace lies not in the act, but in being lazy enough to get caught.

Other information about Cartimandua

A Mistress, Three Widows and a Priestess: the rise of women leaders on the Roman frontiers Article by Emily Roche.

Cartimandua name information

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