Sep 23

Flora and Fauna associated with Brighid

Flora and Fauna Associated with Brighid

Plant life

  • Oak : The most obvious tree associated with her as this is the root of the place-name of the saints’ religious foundation: Kildare. This is derived from Cill Dara or “the church of the oak tree” and the saints’ foundation is strongly believed to have been founded on (or converted from) a Pagan holy place of the Goddess. 
  • Hazel : I owe this tree suggestion to the work done by Steve Blamires in his ‘Celtic Tree Mysteries’. Apparently, one description of the hazel tree in an ogham text is as the “fairest of trees” which is Cainiu Fedaib in Irish. However, cainiu also has the alternative meanings of to “keen over a death” and to “satirize someone”. For those who may be unfamiliar with these terms, to keen was the Irish practise of lamentation and wailing over the dead while a satire was not a specific form of humour, as in today’s general meaning, but was an unpleasant poem against a person and could range from insulting them to acting as destructive magic against them. These meanings firmly mark the hazel as a special tree of the Goddess as it was Brighid who was said to have started the practise of keening after the death of her son Ruadan and also Brighid who was the matron of the poets (filid) in Ireland. Another aspect which firmly links it to Brighid is that the hazel is strongly associated with wisdom.
  • Dandelion : This prolific little yellow flower is called bearnan Bride, or the “little notched of Bride”, according to notes in the Carmina Gadelica.

Animals

  • Cow : Cattle are possibly the most commonly mentioned animals associated with the Goddess. Brighid was said to be raised on the milk of an otherworld cow and Scottish charms, recorded in the Carmina Gadelica, call her ‘Bride of the milk and kine’ and ‘Brigit of the kine’. St. Brigid was said to have a white cow whose milk never ran dry. The Lebor Gabala Érenn mentions that the goddess Brigid, the daughter of The Dagda, had two royal oxen which (along with her Triath) cried out when Ireland was plundered. 
  • Boar : The Lebor Gabala also mentions that Brigid owned Triath (more commonly known as Torc Triath) which was the king of her boars. This great boar, along with her oxen, raised a cry when Ireland was plundered. There is evidence from the Welsh tradition of the importance of this boar for they have retained a tale of the hunt of an enchanted boar called Twrch Trwyth which was once a king. An examination of the cuts on boar bones excavated in Celtic countries has suggested that they were used more for ritual than for food. The boar hunt is an important motif in Celtic literature though archaeological evidence suggests that the stag hunt was a more common occurrence. Miranda Green has shown the battle symbolism of boars as their images were placed as motifs on weapons and armour. The martial nature of such an association is not incompatible with the calm loving goddess who is patroness of healers (amongst other occupations). It can be argued from the symbolism seen on the Romanised statue of Brigantia found in Birrens (the Brythonic Brigid) that She, appropriately enough for a Great Goddess, has a sovereign aspect and acts as a protectress: She bears a spear in one hand and a ‘globe’ in the other. To ensure peace within and protection for a community, it is necessary to be prepared to fight for them if the circumstances demand.
  • Serpent? : A serpent was supposed to emerge on St. Bride’s day, February 1st, and a song was sung to it. One version of this is:
    Early on Bride’s morn
    The serpent shall come from the hole,
    I will not molest the serpent
    Nor will the serpent molest me.
    This has been interpreted as a remnant of serpent worship. The element of uncertainty is because a folk custom was also recorded in the Carmina Gadelica on this day which is suggestive of a symbolic pounding of the serpent’s head but unfortunately the actual original significance of the pounding act is no longer known.
Goddess Brigantia

Goddess Brigantia, with a “peacock” of her head

Birds
These are taken from notes in the Carmina Gadelica.

  • Linnet : bigein Bride or “little bird of Bride”.
  • Oyster-Catcher : Bridein or “Bird of Bride”. Also, gille Bride or “page of Bride”
  • Peacock: As found in Northern France. (See above)

Sep 23

The Goddess Brigantia – The ‘Exalted One’

The Goddess Brigantia
The Goddess Brigantia
The Goddess Brigantia

The Goddess Brigantia

Historical Background On The ‘Exalted One’

Tina Deegan

Brigit was one of the most popular, and widely worshipped, goddesses of the Celtic-speaking peoples. Brigit, which is Old Irish for “The Exalted One”, is just one of the variant spellings for this native goddess. Her name can also be spelt as Brighit, Briid and Brigid.

Caesar mentioned Minerva and the insular evidence of the British Isles highlights a Minerva type goddess important within these isles: ‘the exalted one’. Known as Brigantia from the Roman inscriptions in the north of England where she was the tutelary goddess of the Brigantes tribe(s), some of the iconography has ‘victory’ imagery. This goddess has been identified as identical with the Gaulish goddess Brigindo and also linked with Brigit, the pre-Christian Irish goddess who was linked with fire, smithing, fertility, cattle, crops and poetry.

She is usually believed to be the same goddess as Brigantia for Brigit is cognate with that name (or its’ pre-Roman form of Briganti). Brigantia, meaning “High One”, was the tutelary goddess of the confederation of Brythonic tribes called the Brigantes who were based in the north of the British Isles (very approximately equating to the modern north of England). Ptolemy also mentioned the Brigantes as being within southern Ireland. Yet, this goddess is not only found in the Insular cultures for inscriptions of another goddess, cognate with Brigit and Brigantia, called Brigindo, have been found in what was eastern Gaul.

John Koch has suggested (1) that, in the same way as there may have been a mortal high priestess at Brigit’s cult centre in Kildare in Ireland, there may have been a high priestess of Briganti in Britain and Cartimandua is an example of this. She was a queen of the Brigantes in the early Roman period of British history. He further supports this concept by considering the male leader of the Brigantes. Binchy has shown the derivation of the Welsh word for king, brenin, as being from brigantinos or “consort of the goddess Briganti” which originally referred to the male leader of the Brigantes.

A Romano-British carving survives of Brigantia and was found at Birrens in southern Scotland. She wears a crown and has a face in the centre of her chest: symbolism which links her with the classical goddess Minerva (the face being the Gorgon’s head in classical terms). She also cradles a spear with one arm and cradles a globe at her waist with the other hand. This is symbolism associated with the Roman goddess Victory.

The consideration of the nature of the Pre-Christian Irish goddess, Brigit, is complicated in that our surviving evidence comes from later Christian writers. Also, there is no surviving pagan imagery as Ireland was not conquered by the Romans, which might have led to some contemporary stone carvings or inscriptions as in Britain.

A couple of the earliest works, which specifically refer to the pagan goddess are the Lebor Gabála Érenn, a medieval work of pseudo-history which incorporates the old gods and goddesses, and also Sanas Chormaic, a glossary written about 900ce by Cormac mac Cuilennáin who was both bishop and king. The Lebor Gabala describes Brigid as “the poetess” or banfili. And the daughter of the Dagda whilst Cormac’s Glossary also refers(2) to her as the daughter of the Dagda but says she was one of three daughters called Brigit. She was the poetess and a woman of wisdom whilst her sisters were the physician and the smith.

Genealogy was significant to the Irish, for the basic family unit within the law was the fine : this was the surviving family to six generations. The recitation of a royal claimants’ genealogy was an integral part of the Gaelic coronation (as shown in Scotland). So it is notable she is one of the Tuatha Dé Danann, or ‘the people of the goddess Danu’ who were the Pre-Christian pantheon of Ireland, and also that her father is the Dagda, the ‘good god’ in the sense of skilled rather than as a moral description. He was a most important god to the Old Irish, he was known (amongst other things) by the titles “Father of All” and “Lord of Great Knowledge”.

She is described as married with children in a few tales. One account is where she is married to Bres (“The Beautiful”) and they have a son Ruadan who was killed in battle. Brigid went onto the battlefield to mourn for him and this was said to be the first keening (from caoine or “lament”) in Ireland. Bres is the son of Ériu (or Eri) by a Fomorian king, and he briefly takes the kingship of the Tuatha Dé Danann when Nuada loast an arm, but was exceedingly mean and oppressive and was deposed. After being captured in battle, Bres saves his life by advising the Tuatha Dé about agriculture. There is another account4 where she is said to be married to Tuireann and had three sons: Brian, Iuchar and Iucharba. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn these are listed as the “three gods of the Tuatha Dé Danann” though little is known of them as gods.

Modern linguistic analysis has shown Cormac’s analysis of Brigit’s name, i.e. as being from breo-agit or “fiery arrow”, to be wrong, but I am uncertain whether this is a part of the erroneous etymologies he used from Isidore of Seville or whether it was from some lost source which contained contemporary pagan imagery about her.

Another source of information about the goddess, though also a complicating factor, is details from the life of the (approximately) fifth century Christian Saint Brigit and the folklore associated with her. It is widely accepted that this most important female saint in Ireland has assumed some aspects of, and likely lore from, Brigit the goddess. But assumptions or deductions have to be made as to what about Saint Brigit is an inheritance from the pagan goddess. One likely indicator is that the saint’s feast day is 1st February, Lá Fhéile Bríde, which happens to be the same day as the old Pre-Christian feast of Imbolc.

There are also variant spellings associated with the saint such as Bridget (especially popular on the Isle of Man), Brigid, Bríd, Bride and Brighid. There is also a Breton saint, Saint Barbe, who is also believed to be derived from a Pre-Christian fire goddess.(3) She was the patroness of firemen. Though, unlike St. Bridget, she was venerated on the last Sunday in June.

Endnotes
1. John T. Koch (ed.) with John Carey, The Celtic Heroic Age, (Celtic Studies Publications, USA 1995), p.39
2. As cited in the website of Ord Brighideach (https://members.aol.com/gmkkh/brighid/ob.htm May 1999)
3. James MacKillop, Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, (Oxford University Press 1998), p. 30
4. As quoted by Peter Berresford Ellis, A Dictionary of Irish Mythology, (Oxford University Press 1991), p.49

Additional Sources

Séamas Ó Cáthain, The Festival of Brigit: Celtic Goddess & Holy Woman, (DBA Publications 1995)

Miranda Green, Celtic Goddesses, (British Museum Press 1995)

Dr. Daithi O hOgain, Myth, Legend & Romance: An Encyclopaedia of the Irish Folk Tradition, (Ryan Publishing 1990)

Bernard Maier (Cyril Edwards trans.), Dictionary of Celtic Religion and Culture, (Boydell & Brewer 1997)

Sep 23

Thoughts on Celtic Religion – Raimund, Karl

Contents

Raimund KARL (a8******@un**.at)

CELTIC RELIGION – WHAT INFORMATION DO WE REALLY HAVE

INTRODUCTION

To begin with, lets first look at the sources available to us: There are quite numerous sources available, contrary to the usual belief that there is almost nothing actually there.

First, there are the archaeological sources. These are the only direct source for the prehistoric part of the religion we are talking about. The main elements we find here are sacred sites (being as well designed cult centres with a certain layout like the “Viereckschanzen” are, as there are “natural” places which were used to deposit offerings) and the findings and objects that came down on us (including as well bog bodies as graves, the objects found in ritual deposits and depictions of gods, most of which are from the time of the Roman occupation but which still tell us something about the Celtic religion)

Second, there are the epigraphic sources, i.e. inscriptions. Most of those are from the time of the Roman occupation and as such their use is partly limited, however, some are autochtonous and preroman (mainly such from Southern Gaul and Spain).

Third, there are the historical sources from the diverse Roman authors. Although these are often biased due to the author writing, his knowledge, his political or other interests, the audience which he was targeting his writings at and other influences as later interpolations, they give us more or less first-hand information (at least almost contemporary information).

Fourth, we have the Insular literature, including early British histories (like those of Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth), sociopolitical geographies like those of Giraldus Cambrensis as well as Irish and Welsh tales. These sources are useable to get hints at how to reconstruct earlier religious concepts as well as to how Celtic religion might have looked in the Celtic countries not conquered by Rome during the first few centuries AD.

Fifth, we have the folk traditions in the countries which still are “Celtic”. Even though heavily Christianised, many a “pagan” deity of belief shows through these traditions, and as such these can be used to reconstruct missing parts as well.

These sources can be analysed and are additionally added by results of such fields as linguistics, comparative IE studies, comparative religious studies and general history, which all help by providing explanatory possibilities and construction and development models and possibilities.

I will now start this look at pagan Celtic Religion with a survey of what we know about what we would call “priestly” functions more or less.

RELIGIOUS FUNCTIONS

When thinking of Celtic religious functions, the first thing that comes to ones mind is doubtlessly the “druid”. In most of the literature, and not only the popular but a good deal of the scientific one as well, “priest” is equated with the term “druid” when talking about the Celts. However, this is a gross simplification. There’s definitely more to Celtic religious functions.

DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS FUNCTIONS

To start with, definitely the term druid is, to a certain extent, also a catch over term for all the Celtic religious functions., Caesar for instance, seems to use it in this kind in his excursus on the Gauls in his De Bello Gallico, when he writes: (BG VI, 13-4) “To return to those two classes: One of them is the class of the druids, the other one those of the knights. The druids are concerned with the divine worship, the due process of sacrifices, public and private, and in the interpretation of ritual questions … In fact, it is they who decide in almost all disputes, public and private …”.

On the other hand, the term druid is also used to describe a specific religious function. We can at least identify one other religious function, probably even more. For this, we can look at Strabo (IV, 4) quoting Poseidonius: “Among all the tribes, generally speaking, there are three classes of men held in special honor: the bards, the vates and the druids” (B/ardoi te kai\ Oua/teis kai\ Drui/dai). This gives us at least the vates as a second religious function, and it is possible that the bards are to be considered as a religious function as well.

Additionally, it is worth noting that for all these three classes we have equivalents in the Irish literature, where we find, additionally to the druid (Ir. drui/ Gaul. *druids) the fai/th (greek oua/teis, Gaul. *vatis) and the bard (greek ba/rdoi, Gaul. *bardos). Added to these in the function of interpreter of “rectus” (law), which would, if we follow Caesar’s description above, as well fall into the “druidical” functions, would be the Gaulish “vergobretus” (supreme magister), which contains the same root as the Irish “breithem” (judge). Additionally there is the Irish “fili” (seer, poet, priest), whichs gaulish cognate would be “*velits”, a cognate of is attested as a name for a Germanic seeres, “Veleda”.

This now leaves us with the following terms: Druid, Vates, Vergobretus, Bard, and perhaps fili.

Let us take a look at what their jobs were.

DRUID

The specialised function of the “druid” is described in Strabo IV, 4 as the science of nature and moral philosophy (pro\s te physiologi/a kai\ ten ethiken philosophi/an). The term “druid” itself is probably derived from IE *dru-uid- “highly wise” – which might be the reason for why it was also used as a catchover term for all the religious functions.
The specialised functions may allow us to assume that the druids in fact are the class who worked as medics and who were knowledgeable in herbal lore as described by Pliny the Elder. A grave of such a “druid” we know from the cemetery of Pottenbrunn, object 520, which contained the burial of an adult male of the early La Te\ne Period, which carried, additionally to the usual equipment, a medical instrument and a propellor-shaped bone object of unknown function, which could be an item used in rituals.

VATES

The function of the vates is described by Strabo as “interpreters of sacrifices and natural philosophers” (hieropoioi\ kai\ physiolo\goi). This fits quite well with what we know of as the function of the Irish fa/ith, whose job was to carry out the divinations. The description of Strabo allows us to assume that also the vates were the diviners, and as such probably also the calender of Coligny falls into their field of work (the Claender has been interpreted as a solar/lunar predictor by Olmsted), so the vates would be the ones who were the astrologers and mathematicians amongst the “priests”

VERGOBRETUS

We know little about the actual function of the Vergobretus, of whom we only have one short notice in the ancient literary sources which only gives us that title. However, as the term has the same root as the Irish breithem, whose function we know was judging in lawcases, we may assume that the Vergobretus was a similar function. As Caesar reckons the judging in lawcases to the druidical functions it can be assumed that it was a “religious” function as well.

BARD

Not much has to be said about the bards. Strabo (IV, 4) describes them as “singers and poets” (hymnetai\ kai\ poietai\), which fits quite well with what we know about the Irish bards. As a possible etymology for *bardos could be derived from the IE root *gur-d(h)o-s which is translated as “Praise Giver” this function could have been religious as well.

WHAT ELSE WE KNOW

Well, actually not much. We do not know which of the above if any carried out which of the rituals we know or can guess at. However, we know that, according to Caesar (BG VI, 14-2), “Many young men assemble of their own motion to receive their training; many are sent by parents and relatives. Report says that in the schools of the druids they learn by heart a great number of verses, and therefore some persons remain twenty years under training.”. Additionally, as well according to Caesar (VI, 13 and 14), they usually do not participate in wars, they don’t have to pay taxes, they elect for lifetime one out of their midst to be chief druid (more or less the druid pope), a position which is very honourable and therefore sometimes it is, if no decision can be found, even fought about with weapons.

CELTIC GODS

One of the most often cited statements about Celtic gods is that we have over 300 of their names that came down on us, while we know actually almost nothing about their functions. With this statement, usually the idea is transferred that the Celts had an unbelievable large pantheon which consisted mainly of local gods and demigods, with only a few if at all gods in common. However, this is probably a misinterpretation due to lack of knowledge.

THE SYSTEM OF THE CELTIC PANTHEON

A number of differing theories have been issued about how the Celtic (and, most often the common IE pantheon) might have been structured. The main theories follow the Dumezilian system, which postulates a tripartite structure where one part of the gods is the “warriors”, one the “agroculturalists”, and one the craftsmens” gods as the common system behind the IE panthei. However, this system has been often questioned. One of the most interesting new interpretations is the theory lately issued by Garrett Olmsted (The Gods of the Celts and the Indoeuropeans, Archaeolingua vol.6, Budapest 1994). He keeps the tripartite system, but offers a new interpretation of the functions of the gods of the different parts in assigning them to three mythical “realms” which he, for simplicity, calls Upper, Middle and Lower Realm (which is probably best visible in the Norse mythologies with Asgard, Midgard and Niflheim as Upper, Middle and Lower Realm and in the Vedic System which says that 11 gods dwell in the heavens, 11 on earth and 11 in the water), which however could be called Sky, Earth and Water. A good hint at such a system could be found in the diverse kinds of offerings used by the Celts: Cremation as sacrifices to the Upper Realm gods, Burying in the Earth as sacrifices to the gods of the Middle Realm and Deposition in Water as sacrifices to the Lower Realm gods.

THE NAMES OF THE CELTIC GODS

Well, I already mentioned that we have over three hundred names for Celtic gods. Lugos, Toutatis, Taranis, Cernunnos, Esus, Sequana, Brigantia, Epona, Matrona, Noreia, Eriu, Govannon, Belenos, Mabon and so on. It has been, for a long time, considered that the Celtic pantheon was regionally split up, that Noreia was a tribal goddess for the Norici, Sequana a tribal goddess for the Sequani, Eriu a tribal goddess for the Erenn. This also seems to be true, but only to a certain extent. As far as we can say by now, the Celtic gods had a lot of variants, the most we can find here are local but it is also possible that some were functional.

This is nothing surprising in fact, if we look at other IE pantheons we find that most gods in most pantheons have numerous, local and functional, bynames and names. The Greek god Zeus had multiple names, as is true for all the other greek gods. Iuppiter is also known to us as Dispater, and under numerous other names. The Hindu gods all have multiple names. The same is true for the Germanic gods. And if we look at the Gallo-roman inscription in which most of the Celtic god names have been brought down to us we find, not really surprising, that Mars is mentioned with over 50 Celtic god names, as Mars Toutatis, Mars Ambiorix and others, while Apollo is going along with Grannos, Belenos and others, while Taranis and others are attributed to Iuppiter.

Given this, it is most likely that the names of the Celtic gods that came down on us, are, for the most part, the local and/or functional bynames of gods whose “real” names probably were kept secret or which blend in with the bynames. Only two gods can be identified almost everywhere, being the god Lugos (Irish Lugh, Welsh Llew), whose name we find from Spain to Germany and probably even further east, and the mother godess (matrona), of which we know her functional name, i.e. mother, (old Gaulish matrona, Welsh Modron), and to which a number of the female names we have can be atrributed (Sequana, Noreia, Brigantia and probably as well Eriu and Boand, and additionally we have some “mothergodesses of places” like the Matronae Lugdunensis or the Matronae Treverorum).

GODS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Now lets take a look at the more important godly functions

THE SKY FATHER

More or less, the Sky father is the god we are used to refer to as “the head of the pantheon”. This god is probably derived from a common IE god named *Dieus-pater, translated as “Skyfather” – and is quite easily detectable in Greek Zeus Pater, Iuppiters byname Dispater and the the Vedic Dyauspita. In the Celtic World this function is most probably fulfilled by the Ollathair (Great father), the Dagda, whereby the Ollathair seems to be a reminiscent of the *Dieus-pater, although its best cognate is found in the Germanic Odin “Alfodr”.

The function of this god is that he is, usually, the progenitor of all other gods together with the Earth Mother.

Depending on the religion this god is also the head of the pantheon, or at least his father or grandfather and often also the god of thunder and lightning. It seems that this deity is the Dagda in the Irish mythology, while Gaulish mythology he seems to have been called Taranis (“the Thunderer, a cognate term to the Germanic Thorr from the IE root *tn-ro-s).

THE CONTROLLER OF THE LOWER REALM AND HIS CONSORT

This god usually is the one who is in charge of the otherworld and/or who is ferrying the dead to there. The Gaulish name for this god is “Sucellos” (the good striker), and he is equalled by Greek, Etruscan and Roman Charon. He is usually depicted with a great hammer and a dog by his side, and has a consort called Nantosuelta (either translated as “sun-warmed valley”, or as “who makes the valley bloom”, the second being suggestive of the Irish Bla/thnat, probably meaning “Little flower”, and Welsh Blodeued “Flower-faced”). We also see here a close parallel to the consort of Hades, Persephone. The dog which resides beside Sucellos usually could be an equivalent to the Greek Cerberos, the Hell-Hound. Equivalents in the Irish legend can be found in the Relationship between Curoi Mac Daire and Blathnath (Cu Roi actually meaning “Hound of the Plain”), especially given the fact that Curoi also appears as the churl in the beheading game in the quarrel about the heroes’ portion in Fled Bricrenn, parallels can also be found in the Welsh Mabinogi in the story about Llew and Blodeued. The apparent similarity of Arawn from Annwn with his beautiful wife and his red-eared dogs to the position of Sucellos is also worth a note.

DAYTIME AND NIGHTTIME CONTROLLER OF THE UPPER REALM

The upper realm control seems to have been split to be fulfilled by two gods, characteristically one of them is One-eyed, the other one-handed. This is true for Vedic Va/runah and Mitra/h as well as for the Germaic pair Odin and Tyr.

The Celtic equivalents for those gods are quite apparent. If we look at Cath Maige Tuired, one of the most important texts for Irish mythology, we see Lugh, the one skilled in all arts, as closing one eye while cursing the enemy Fomorians, and the equaling of Lugh with Gaulish Lugh is not only apparent but unavoidable, as Caesar tells us that the Gauls credited Mercurius (whith which Lugos is equated by the Romans) with the invention of all arts. As Lugh`s name is probably derived from a Celtic root *lug with the meaning “burn, enflame”, we can possibly see the daytime Upper realm controler in him. If we add to this the festival of Lughnasad we could assume that he was also the controller of the summer half of the year.

His mythical twin, the one who was the ruler before Lugh, is in Cath Maige Tuired the (formerly) onehanded Nuadu, which we have equalled in the British deity Nodens. In the Gaulish Context this deity seems to have been identified both with Mercurius and Mars by the Romans, thus being more or less the “kings god” and the “god of the tribe”. Here we probably would have to set most of the Mars-connected gods like Toutatis, Vellaunos.

THE YOUTHFUL-SAVIOUR-CHAMPION

Another function is the one of the youthful-saviour-champion. This role is fulfilled by Cuchullin in the Irish texts, and mixes to a certain extent with the function of the Nighttime Upper Relam controller. This god is the warrior champion of the tribe, probably also the god to whom the diverse known Celtic warrior bands (like the Gaesates) would pray. He is the one who protects the cattle of the tribe, the one who goes into battle frenzy, who fights naked. His Gaulish equivalent probably would be Esus.

EARTH MOTHER

The Earth mother (surprise, she actually exists in Celtic mythology). It is usually this godess which was, together with the Sky father, parent of all the other gods. This godess appears as a separate godess in some IE pantheons (for instance Gaia in the greek mythology), but also can meld with other female godesses, most often with the female Upper Realm godess. In the Irish mythology s separate Earthmother figure seems to be preserved in the figure of Danu and Tailtiu.
She was usually also the mother of three goddesses associated with rivers or springs which are the female goddesses of the Upper, Middle and Lower realm.

THE GODESS OF THE LOWER REALM

The goddess of the Lower Realm seems to have had a cowlike nature. It was probably called *Guououinda “White cow” (from IE *guou- + *uind-), *Matrona “Mother” (from IE *mater) or *Mororegni “Great Queen” (from IE *moro- + *regni-) She was also capable of shifting her form to an eel, snake, serpent or wolf, more or less the animal goddess. Additionally, she seems to be one of the aspects of the “goddess of sovereignty”. Her Gaulish names seem to have been S(t)irona “Heifer”, Damona “Cow”, but also Brigantia “the High, the exalted pure one”, Rigana “the Queen”, Matrona “mother”, but also Sequana “the Flowing” and Bovinda “white Cow”. Her Irish equivalents are for instance Boand (the Irish form of Bovinda), Brigit (equivalent of Brigantia) and Mo/rri/gan (the Irish version of Rigana). Her Welsh equivalent is Mordron (the mother).

Through intercourse with the skyfather this godess begets a god named “son”, who later marries his aunt, the godess of the middle realm. This son is the Gaulish *Maponos “Son”, in Welsh this is his cognate *Mabon “Son”, and, as expected, Boand is the mother of the Irish Mac ind O/c “young Son”. This god seems to be associated with fire.

THE GODESS OF THE MIDDLE REALM

The godess of the middle Realm apparently had the byname *Medhua “Intoxicatress” (from IE *medhu-). She seems to appear human in form, and definitly is also part of the “godess of sovereignity”. Her Gaulish name probably was *Meduana “Intoxicatress” or *Comedova (same meaning), and possibly also *Aveda “the flowing (Water)” Her Irish form is known as Medb or Aife (one of Mebd’s bynames).
This godess also has a son with the skyfather, called *nepots “Nephew” (alternatives *Nepotulos, *Neptionos) or *Nebhtunos “God of Waters”, or Irish Nechtain-Freach (the son of Medb), who later marries his Aunt, the Lower Realm godess (as Nechtain does with Boand). This god seems to be associated with water.

THE GODESS OF THE UPPER REALM

This godess is usually depicted as a horse. Her Gaulish name is Epona “Horse Godess” (from IE *ekuo-na), but she has as her bynames also the names *Rigana “Queen” (See also above for the Lower Realm godess) and possibly some others like ?Catona? “Battle Godess” and ?Imona? “Swift One”. Her Irish equivalent is Macha (which is also called Rigana “Queen”and Roech “Great Horse”, essentially a cognate of Epona). The byname ?Imona? of Epona could also explain the name Emain Macha, as ?Imona? is cognate with Emain (from *Imonis). Her Welsh equivalent is Rhiannon “Queen” (from *Riganona).
The name Macha may also indicate that here we have a melding of the Earth goddess with the Upper Realm goddess (see Latin *Maia “the Great, the Mother but also Sanskrit *Mahi “the Earth”).
This goddess as well is part of the “Goddess of Sovereignty”.

A FEW THOUGHTS ON THE “GODDESS OF SOVEREIGNITY”

As we have seen above, all those four goddesses are very interwoven in their functions. In fact, it is questionable if they are to be considered as separate godesses at all, or if they are not all only aspects of the Earth Mother/Godess of Sovereignity complex. Simply said, this is not decideable at the moment. It is also possible that due to the very scarce evidence and a constant intermixture, these goddesses became, even though separate goddesses, mixed to a certain extent by the Celts themselves.

THE GOD OF THE TREE FRUIT

This god is depicted as a bull. It is a twin god as far we can say, who has a white and a black form. The two twins seem to be fighting each other, starting out as humans and going through a series of shapechanges until finally, when both are bulls, the dark one rips the white one apart besides a sea. Its gaulish names are Tarvos Trigaranus “Bull with three cranes”, Tarvos “Bull” or Donnotaurus “Black bull”, the last one being a cognate of Donn Tarbh, another name for the Donn Cuailnge, who fights the Finnbenach “White horned one” in one of the preludes rto the Tain, also going through the shapechanges. In this, this figure fits with the Avestan Tistrya and Apaosa and, more perfectly even, with the Greek Zagre/ous-Dio/nysos.

THE GODESS OF WAR

Well know as a triplicate goddess from Irish mythology in the forms of Mo/rri/gan “Great Queen”, Nemain “Battle Frenzy” and Babd “Crow”. These three godesses are also refered to as the tres Mo/rri/gna “The three Great Queens”, therefore the Mo/rri/gan may not be identical with the Lower Realm godess, but also these might be three other aspects of the tripartite godess/three godesses that are responsible for the respective realms. The three battle godesses can shift into the form of a raven.
At least the Babd, who is also referred to as Babd catha “Battlecrow”, also in this form has a cognate in Gaulish gods names in [C]athubodva.

THE GOD OF ORATORY – THE CELTIC HERCULES

Apparently there existed a god in Gaul named Ogmios who was equated with the Roman Hercules as statet in Lucianus’s Dialogi Deorum (Hercules 1,7). This god is cognate with the Irish Ogma mac Elathan of the Tu/atha De/ Danann in Cath Maige Tuired, who is refered to as the champion of the TD and credited with the invention of the Ogam alphabet. He seems to have functioned as a god of oratory as well, Gaulish coins depict his audience as tied by silver chains to him which connect his tongue with their ears.

DEA LOCI – GODESS OF A PLACE

Additionally there existed goddesses which were “place-specific” in that they were seen as protectoresses and/or mothers of certain places. They are considered to fall in the group of Gaulish Matres, Matrones. We know such godesses for instance for *Genava (todays Geneva in Switzerland), Vienna (todays French Vienne) and numerous other places. A function of the Irish Macha in that kind for Emain Macha is also likely.

SPRING “NYMPHS” – GODESSES OF SPRINGS

There also exist numerous goddesses responsible for springs. We know of an *Acionna “?Water Godess?”, *Arvolcia “the very Wet”, *Cobba “Prosperity” and others. Equal functions were probably fulfilled by the godesses after which rivers were named like the Sequana, Matrona, Boand. We know for instance that at the spring of the Sequana offerings were made to that goddess.

WOOD “NYMPHS” – GODESSES OF THE LANDS

Equal to spring goddesses we also know of goddesses which were attributed to certain parts of the countryside. For instance we know of a goddess *Ardbenna “Goddess of the Ardbenna, the High Hills”, whose name still is clinging to the Ardennes forest on the German/French border and similar.

THE GENII – LESSER GODS / SPIRITS

The last type I’ll be mentioning here are the socalled Genii, sometimes also know as Genii cucullati “Hooded Spirits” which could have had numerous functions. We know of Genii of the “Neighbourhood”, Gaul. *Contrebis which is probably cognate with Irish contreb “community”, Genii of the family, Gaul. *Vinotonos from the Celtic stems *veni- “family” and the cognate of Irish tonn “wave, surface, land, earth, skin” as well as placename genii like Artio “god of the Bear (forest)”, *Alisanos “god of Alesia”, *Brixantus “god of Brixantion”, but also for tribes or their subunits like *Allobrox “God of the Allobroges, *Menapos “God of the Menapii”.

SACRED PLACES

Basically, we can discern two kinds of places “sacred” to the Celts. First, we have the natural sacred places and, second, the artificial sacred places (called “sacred monuments” from now on).

NATURAL SACRED PLACES

It is obvious from diverse archaeological findings and finds that a number of natural places had a sacred character to the Celts. Noteworthy is here, that basically all those places have an aspect of liminality.

SACRED PLACES IN CONNECTION TO WATER

The kind of sacred place most often used by the Celts (at least seemingly), is one that has something to do with water.

SACRED SPRINGS

The first kind of sacred places connected to water, and probably also one of the more important ones, are springs. As we have already seen while dealing with the gods, we know quite a great number of Celtic “spring nymphs”. This is mirrored by archaeological finds in springs. Some of the most important Celtic hoards have been found in such a situation, like the spring find from Duchcov, Chech Republic, in the springs of the Seine (the Gaulish Sequana), but also in the springs of Roman Aquae Sulis, tody Bath in England. In many cases, these are springs that have curative powers, and in the cases of the springs of the Seine and Bath it is also visible from the archaeological finds that the curative power of the spring and its related god/godess were consciously sought. In the Seine springs, for exaple, there have been found numerous models of human body parts from various materials, which can be interpreted as offerings to the godess Sequana who should cure the depicted body part.

This function of springs or wells is also hinted at in Cath Maige Tuired (123), where the Physician of the TD heals the wounded in a well, upon which he together with his two sons and his Daughter has chanted spells and in which he had cast all herbs to be found in Ireland.

SACRED LAKES

That lakes were places where contact to the “otherworld” was possible is well known from a lot of the epics. That some of them were considered as sacred places as well is also deductible from archaeological findings like the famous Lynn Cerrig Bach hoard, where a lot of items had been cast into the lake. An equal interpretation has also been brought forth for the name giving site of the La Te\ne Culture, La Tene at lake Newchatel, Switzerland, even though lately this has been questioned due to another finding at the point where the Ziehl (a river) flows out of the lake Neuchatel, where obviously a bridge was destroyed during a flood catastrophe while a lot of persons where on it, is the La Tene finds could have come into the lake for the same reasons.

SACRED RIVERS

That rivers had a certain sacred aspect is obvious from the fact that a good number of them take their names from Celtic gods, be it the Sequana, the Matrona, the Boyne or the Danube. Hints from archaeology towards offerings can be deducted from isolated findings of prominent standing, like the Battersea shield, that was recovered from the Thames river.

SACRED BOGS

That also boglands could have had “sacred” aspects is also likely. A hint to this can be found in the finding of Lindow man, a bog body discovered in Lindow Moss, England, of a man in his mid-twenties that was killed in a threefold manner (the kind of death also ascribed to some of the more famous British magicians/poets/druids like the Southern Scottish Lailoken or Merlin).

SACRED PLACES IN CONNECTION TO THE EARTH

We know little of sacred places that have to do with the earth, but that such existed are likely. It is, however, hard to decide in this case if these were natural “sacred places”, as offerings at such places would probably have to have been interred in the earth, which wouldn’t happen naturally but had to be done artificially, most probably. However, a number of isolated hoards that were found in the open countryside, like the Snettisham hoard (more or less a connection of gold torcs), or hoards at the edges of settled territory as they are known from Bohemia, for instance, could be interpreted as such offerings.

An equal interpretation is possible forsome skeletal finds (most often of females) in the gate area of some of the oppida, the fortified sites of (mainly) late La Te\ne dating. These skeletons are usually found below the walls in the gate areas and look very much like human sacrifices to protect the gate.

Probably also the sacred grooves of the Druids, the so called Nemeton or Drunemeton as related to us by the ancient authors, fall into this category.

SACRED PLACES IN CONNECTION TO SKY (OR EARTH, TOO)

The last group of natural sacred places are those which are most probably connected to the Sky (even though a connection to the Earth is also possible). Into this category fall sites like the Pass Lueg, Austria, on which a Celtic Helmet (one of the most famous ones as it is the one depicted on the Gauloise cigarette packs) was found, or maybe also the hoard of Erstfeld, Switzerland, which is at the foot of the Great St.Gotthard pass over the alps. These places could have been, like Greek Mount Olympus, been connected to the skies (due to their relativly high altitude), something which could equally be true of such remnants like the “Vierbergewallfahrt” (four mountain pilgrimage) in Carithia, Austria, or the Croagh Patrick tour.

SACRED MONUMENTS

The second group of sacred places are the sacred monuments. Here we can also distinguish between some different groups.

ANCIENT MONUMENTS

That ancient monuments were considered sacred places is beyond any doubt from the Irish and Welsh tales. One only has to think of the Beliefs connected to places like Newgrange (Brug na Boinne). A hint towards a similar belief of the ancient Celts can be found at the site of the huge tumulus of Hochmichele, Germany, where a Viereckschanze (see below) was erected directly besides the late Hallstatt tumulus.

VIERECKSCHANZEN

The second type of sacred monuments are the socalled “Viereckschanzen”. These are roughly rectangular wall and ditch constructions that appear in the La Te\ne period from middle France to Eastern Austria, covering more or less whole of the celtral Celtic area. Inside of these rectangular wall and ditch enclosures, which also quite often had elaborate gate constructions, there often appear deep pits which in some cases still contained wooden statues of “gods” and a number of offerings. Equal pits, but without the surrounding wall and ditch constructions, have also been found on the British isles. Sometimes also small houses appear inside these Viereckschanzen, which in some cases appear to be the predecessors of later Gallo-Roman temples.

TEMPLES INSIDE OF OPPIDA

Still another type of sacred monuments, even though connected to the above group, are the temples that have on occasion been found in oppida, like in Manching.

GRAVES

It is also likely that the graves were considered to be sacred places. In some areas of ancient Celtic culture the graves were surrounded by fences, which makes them in some sort similar to Viereckschanzen. Even though sacred, these graves have still been often enough robbed by graverobbers only a few years after the burial. This may be explained by simple materialism (a lot of the grave goods probably had quite some worth), but could also be interpreted as raids on the otherworld as we know them from the Irish and British tales.

OTHER SACRED MONUMENTS

It is quite possible that there existed other sacred monuments as well. For instance it is quite likely from the Irish tradition that places like Emain Macha, Tailtiu, Cruachan and Tara were such sacred places. Although most of them also fall in the category of ancient monuments it is possible that there were also some permanent residents at such sites, in contrast to other “ancient monuments” like in Newgrange.

RITUALS

On rituals that were performed in Celtic Religion only very little information has come down on us. However, we can still guess at a few of those. Basically, we can discern between some different groups of rituals. First, there are rituals performed at the seasonal feasts. Then we know a little bit about transmigrational rituals (rituals falling into the field of changes in ones life – often also called initiation rites, which only incompletely describes this group as the death rituals have to be included in this field). Third, we know of some divinatory rituals. Fourth, we know of some rituals falling in the field of curative processes, i.e. the healing of wounds or illnesses. Firth, we know about some “magical” rituals. Finally, we have hints to some rituals which can’t be put into any of those fields.

SEASONAL RITUALS

We know basically of four great seasonal feast that were part of the Celtic Yearcycle (I will not go into detail as to how these were situated in the year in ancient Celtic times, look for this at analyses of the Calendar of Coligny – which I perhaps will treat separately at some time), namely (starting with the beginning of the year) Samhain, in the current calendarical system fixed to the first of November, Imbolc (today 1st or 2nd of February), Beltane (today 1st of May) and Lughnasad (in August, usually equated with Lammas). We can be certain that rituals took place at those feasts, however, we know only very little about them.

SAMHAIN RITUALS

Samhain is the “Celtic new Year”. Rituals performed on this day (or these days) probably were protectional (as the barrier to the otherworld was thin at that time) ones, and probably such remembering the dead. This feast is known already from ancient Celtic times, where it is called “trinoux Samonis” or “tritinoux Samonis”, more or less translateable as “the three nights of Summer”, probably not meaning that they took place in summer but denoting the final three nights of summer.

IMBOLC RITUALS

We know almost nothing about Imbolc rituals. The only hint is that it is also called Eumelc (first milking, more or less), so it probably included rituals which had to do something with milk.

BELTANE RITUALS

Well, there’s also not much known about Beltane Rituals. The feast had to do something with fire (its translation is “Fire of Bel”, Belenos being one of the Gaulish gods associated with Apollo which is probably a variant of the “Son of the Mother” god, the son of the Lower Realm godess who was associated with fire), there are hints that it also existed already in Gaul.
One of the rituals we know of taking place at that feast was that the animals, especially the cows seemingly, were droven between two fires. Probably this was a purification ritual, and rituals associated with fire which exist in some parts of Europe may be remeniscant of Celtic rituals. (Like the burning wheels who are run down a hill in a village in Germany on the 1st of May).

LUGHNASAD RITUALS

Lughnasad is also only attested for Ireland. It was a harvest feast probably, the rituals carried out at this feast probably centering about the marriage between the Earth godess and Lugh (See the feast of Tailtiu) with a lot of contests of skill and strength, probably.

TRANSMIGRATIONAL RITUALS

The next big group of rituals are the transmigrational rituals. We know little of them, but we can guess at the existence of some, starting with the ritual of name giving, over various initiation rites until adulthood was reached, the inauguration rites to kingship also fall into this category, and finally the death rites are a part of this complex.

THE NAMEGIVING

From various sources we can guess that a ritual existed with which the child was accepted into the community of “humans” more or less.

This can be seen in the Mabinogi for instance, where the mother of Llew has to be tricked into giving him a name and only then (and after three other “initiations” he is considered to be a man), but also in the fact that we do not find babies in Celtic graveyards usually. The youngest individuals to be found in Celtic graveyard usually are no younger that 3 to four years, approximately the time when they start to speak.

OTHER CHILDHOOD TRANSMIGRATIONAL RITUALS

What else can be guessed from the Mabinogi text is that there were still some other initiation rituals until one could be considered adult. We only have hints at such rituals for males, but it is likely that they also existed in similar kind for females. What these other initiations are for the male nobles (as Llew is) is obviously the initiations to weapons (which is paralleled in the boyhood deeds of Cuchullin) and that he gets a wife (also paralleled in the Cuchullin tales where Cuchullin is not allowed to marry Emer until he hasn’t had special training “initiation” with the famous Scathach – in course of this initiation, however, he is primarily sexually initiated – see also that his son stems from this episode).

RITUALS TO BE ACCEPTED INTO A WARRIOR-BAND

At these rituals can be glimpsed from the Finn saga. Here, acceptance into the Fianna requires the applicant to succeed in a test which has many ritualistic elements. As such “warrior-bands” like the Fianna are also likely to have existed in ancient Gaul (see to this the Gaesates), equal rituals probably existed to be accepted into these bands.

INITIATION TO KINGSHIP RITUAL

On this matter we probably have the best information of all the rituals existing in Celtic religion. However, these rituals seem to vary from place to place and in time. What is told to us about the inauguration ceremony in Ancient Gaul is that the king to be is lifted, standing on his shield, by his followers. The rituals connected to the kingship in Tara, however, require the king to be to sleep with the sovereignity godess (according to Giraldus Cambrensis who claims to have seen such a ceremony in Connacht this means the king makes sex with a white mare, which is slaughtered, its blood and flesh are put into a large vat in which the king to be bathes, which is then cooked and then eaten by the people who are at the ceremony) and has to fulfill a test by stepping onto the Lia Fail. In the kingdom of Dalriada the ceremony probably included the king setting his foot into a “footprint” and some other ceremonies as well.

DEATH RITUALS

Besides of the actual deposition of the dead body (be it inhumation, cremation or whatever method else), there were some rituals which we can grasp from archaeology that were connected to death. These included in almost any cases a big feast in the area of the graveyard, of which sometimes still diverse animal bones can be located in the grave area, including a piece of meat and a container with drink (most often probably beer or similar, but in some cases wine, especially for richer dead). Additionally there were put into the grave other gravegoods as well, most probably also pointing at a ritual process in which the items were put into the grave. This is especially visible in some areas of Celtic settlement in certain time periods, where the items put into the grave with the dead body are intentionally destroyed (often called “ritually killed”).

DIVINATORY RITUALS

Another large group of rituals we know of as used by the Celts are Divinatory rituals. Most of them are no longer reconstructable, all we know is that the druids were able to predict the future from bird flight and similar things.

SACRIFICES RITUALS

It is noted in historical sources that the druids could predict the future from sacrifices. To do this, they would kill an animal, or in cases of high importance also humans, and predict from their death-throws.

BULL-SLEEP (“TARB FESS”)

Another divinatory ritual known to us is the so-called Bull-sleep, in Irish “Tarb Fess”. In this ritual the faith (Gaul. vates) overeats himself with the meat of a freshly killed bull (usually with yellow skin) and then lays down to sleep on the hide of that same bull. During the sleep he then has a prophetic dream.

CURATIVE RITUALS

Curative Rituals known to us have already been shortly mentioned in connection to sacred springs. Obviously, the Celts attributed high curative powers (even the power of rebirth) to the water. Hints to this we find in the already quoted passage in Cath Maige Tuired as well as in items like the “cauldron of rebirth” (the Grail of the Arthurian tradition), as archaeology gives us hints in the findings of models of body parts in the springs of the Seine. Obviously, Rituals like immersion in “sacred” water and the offering of equivalent models if the injured body parts was used as a curative ritual (although we also know of surgery made by the Celts, up to the surgical opening of the skull, i.e. trepanation).
We also know a “curative” incantation as allegedly used by Miach, the son of Dian Cecht, to heal the severed Arm of Nuada, the king of the TD. It goes: “joint to joint of it, and sinew to sinew” (Cath Maige Tuired 33).

MAGICAL RITUALS

The last great group of rituals are what I will call “magical” rituals here, because I know no better term for it. Suggestions are, however, welcome.

COLLECTION OF PLANTS RITUALS

The first kind of ritual in this group is described to us by Pliny the elder in his historia naturalis, where he is also speaking about curative plants used by the Druids and how they are acquired. This is the source wherefrom the famous Mistletoe story stems, and from which is usually deducted that the Druids wore white clothing (which I personally very much doubt). Pliny discribes how the druid puts the right arm through the left sleeve of his clothing and cuts, with a golden sickle, the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloth. He describes rituals to collect some other plants as well, which include jumping on one leg around it in the lefthand direction.

BLESSINGS AND CURSES

Also falling in this group of rituals are the blessings and curses. Usually, they invoke a god to do something to somebody else, and are usually engraved into permanent material that is deponated somewhere (for instance lead plates). There are some quite nice curses on them in fact.

OTHER RITUALS

Finally, I take a look at some rituals which cannot be put into the above groups (at least not very well).

THE TEMPLE UNROOFING RITUAL

From the druidesses of one of the French channel islands we know of a yearly ritual, in which they unroofed their whole temple and then set up a new roof in one day. If one of the druidesses let fall what she carried of the roof, so it is said, she would be torn to pieces by the others. In fact, seemingly, the druidesses tried to make each other (or maybe also one of them that was chosen to previously) let fall pieces of the roof.

GENERAL SACRIFICES

In many of the sacred places we know of depositions of items, which have to be called “ritual depositions”. During their deposition definitely rituals were carried out, in some cases also including intentional destruction of the sacrificed items.

HUMAN SACRIFICES AND THE THREEFOLD DEATH

Finally I come to the human sacrifices. These (as already seen in the Temple Unroofing Ritual, which seems to include such a human sacrifice), definitely also had ritualistic components. We do not know much of them, but we have at least one such ritual that can be reconstructed, the so called “threefold death”. This means that the victim dies of three reasons at the same time. In the archaeological material we can see this in case of Lindow man, the bog body from Lindow moss in England, which was killed in such a ritual. As far as it can be reconstructed, Lindow man had been hit in the head (with probably an axe), however, not strong enough to let him instantly die. He was strangled with a Garotte, however, only as far as this would not have caused instant death. After these two “killings”, he was thrown in a pool in Lindow moss, face downwards and unconscious, probably, so that he as well drowned. So he died a “threefold death”.

Similar deaths through three simultaneous reasons are for instance also told about Merlin, and about the Southern Scottish “wise man”/bard/druid Lailoken, who allegedly fell off a cliff onto a spike standing out of a river, coming with his head under water so that he died from the fall, from the spike and from drowning.

This connection has led to the assumption by some scholars that in case of Lindow man we might have found a “Druid prince”.

It is also noteworthy that this threefold death could be interpreted as a death in all “Realms” as described for the gods. The Upper Realm (the skies/air) is found in the fall of Lailoken and in the strangualtion of Lindow man, the Middle Realm (the Earth) is found in the spike on which Lailoken lands and the axewound of Lindow man, and the Lower Realm (the Waters) are quite obvious.

HEADHUNTING

This practice is numerously attested by the ancient historians, the Irish tales and hints towards it can be found in archaeology as well. It definitely had a ritual meaning.

CELTIC RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

We know very little about the actual beliefs that were a part of Celtic Religion. Those very few hints we have are also not overly conclusive, but I’ll try to say as much as is possible.

BELIEFS IN CONNECTION TO CHILDREN

We know only very little about the beliefs connected to children. What we can definitly say is that children were not considered to be “real human beings” up to a certain age, probably up to the age of 2-3, approximatly the time when the child is starting to speak in consistent sentences. We have no children in the graveyards that are below this age, but we find them quite frequently in the settlements. Connected to this “becoming a human” seems to be the giving of a name to the child, as indicated in the 4th branch of the Mabinogi.

After this, however, the children appear frequently in the graveyards and are often adorned with that much jewellery that they probably had looked like chrismas trees when they were buried. Much of this jewellery is supposed to be of apotropaic (protective) function, to ward off evil spirits to which the children seemingly were thought of as being more likely to fall.

Apart from this we know little. We may safely assume that the passage from childhood to adulthood was connected with some beliefs, possibly also initiation rituals, but we know nothing about those but that they existed.

The only other belief (though this as well may have been a secular belief) that we know of is that it was seen as a bad omen if a father was seen together with his son who was not already in the age of carrying weapons (according to Caesar). This might indicate a religious background for a system similar to the fosterage system known from the Irish, which also finds its remnant’s in the upbringing of Lugh by Tailltiu in the Irish mythological cycle.

APOTROPAIC (PROTECTIVE) BELIEFS

We can be quite sure that there existed apotropaic beliefs. This is not only indicated by the frequent “amulets” found in children’s but also adults graves, but also in the way in which much of the jewellery and weaponry was decorated. The images of animals and also human faces (in the typical abstracted Celtic art style) can be seen as “protective” symbols to ward off evil spirits.
That other similar beliefs existed is also confirmed by a passage in the Tain Bo Cuailgne, where we hear that it was geas (prohibition) to the Ulaid to drive with a chariot on a day where there already had occured technical problems with it (like the breaking of a wheel or similar).
Also interpretable as apotropaic beliefs are the rituals described by Pliny the Elder for the Druids when collecting certain plants.

CALENDARICAL BELIEFS

What we know about calendrical beliefs is probably the best documented part of the beliefs (in form of the calendar of Coligny). We can be sure that in ancient Celtic Religion the year was divided in two main parts, the Winter half (starting with Samhain) and the Summer half (starting with Beltane) (although some theories want to set Samhain in the middle of the summer half, but that is probably nonsense). The other two great feasts (Imbolc and Lughnasad), if they at all existed in ancient Celtic Religion, seem to mark the respective middle of the respective halves. Seemingly, the Summer and Winter half fought with one another (in form of a white and a black bull, probably, but possibly also in the form of some gods, look for this in the first branch of the Mabinogi where the enemy of Arawn of Annwn is called Hafgan [i.e. “Summer king” more or less]).

Additionally we know that the months and days had a “lucky” and “unlucky” quality (Gaul. *matos=good, *anmatos=ungood, bad). The Gaulish calendar divided the year into 12 months more or less with 29 and 30 days respectivly (and a month to make up for the lost days every five years), of which the 29 day months were considered “anmatos” and the 30 day ones were considered “matos”. There were, however “matos” days in “anmatos” months and vice versa. What exactly this lucky/unlucky connotation meant, and what result it had on actions taken is not clear, but we can be sure that such a belief existed.
Such a belief is also found in one of the episodes to the Tain, where Cathbad, when asked what this day is good for by Ness, mother of Conchobor, he replies with: For begetting a king on a queen

THE SPIRITS OF NATURE

That a belief in spirits of nature existed in Celtic Religion is relatively sure. The rituals used by the Druids to collect plants as described by Pliny the Elder can, as well as containing apotropaic elements, be seen as magic used to cheat the spirits of the plants collected (for instance putting the right arm, which is the “dangerous” one, through the left sleeve can be seen as a trick to make the plant believe it is safe until it is too late). Partly, these nature spirits may have become the small folk of the Irish legends.
If believes in such spirits influenced the daily routine in any way we do not know.

BELIEFS CONNECTED TO HEALING

We know little about the beliefs connected to healing but that it was performed by the druids. Seemingly, there were multiple possibilities like making offerings to spring godesses like we know from the springs of the Sequana, then there is the possibility that there were beliefs of dogs licking wounds (as indicated by the British god Nodens, who had a connection to dogs that were licking wounds of injured), but also surgery performed like trepanation (the opening of the skull) could have been connected to a special belief (especially if we remember that the head had a special place in Celtic beliefs).
Additionally it is obvious from various sources that curative powers were ascribed to some herbs/plants.

BELIEFS CONNECTED TO KINGSHIP

Of old Celtic kingship we know relatively little, but this can be made up by what we know from the Irish evidence. Obviously, the main belief in regard to kingship was that the wellbeing of the king reflected itself in the wellbeing of the land. A king that lost his perfect appearance reflected this back on the land as well, be he scarred or going that far that he had lost a limb. A physically “not perfect” person would not be able to be king, due to this connection. However, this “perfectness” not only was a matter of physical appearance, but also a matter of mental wellbeing. As such, a ruler had to be just, as injustice would immediatly fall back on the country. Additionally he wouldn’t be allowed to be greedy, because if the king would not give his gifts with open hands, so would nature not wield good crop.

BELIEFS CONNECTED TO GODS

We know little about that, except that diverse gods had diverse functions. Apart from that, we only can say that some members of the society would have a closer connection to one god than to most others, like the shoemakers would (and we know this from one of the Celtiberian inscriptions) tend more towards the god Lugos (which’s equivalent Llew we find as a shoemaker in the Mabinogi).

Apart from that we can be pretty sure that the “gods” were living in an “otherworld”, similar to the Irish belief, and were in some kind connected to the “mythical ancestors” of the people, which can be seen in the assignment of old huge gravemounds as their “palaces”, which is true in Ireland (see only the example of Newgrange), but also in Wales (Pwyll gets to know Rhiannon, his “otherworld wife”, i.e. the godess of sovereignity, while he sits on Gorsedd Arberth, a megalithic tomb), and we can assume something similar for the continental Celts (as seen in the Viereckschanze next to the gigantic gravemound of Hochmichele in Germany). Actually, these “gods” seem to have lived on this planet in the past, and only after their death in this world became “gods”. In this way it can be seen partly as ancestral worship.

OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES

That offerings and sacrifices were deemed necessary is evident from their existence alone. What beliefs especially led to these practices (except the belief that important decisions for the future could only be gained by reading the future in the death of a human sacrifice) we do not know.

BELIEFS CONNECTED TO THE HEAD

As far as we can say the Celts had a special reverence for the head. This is evident from the ancient sources, where we are told that heads of enemies were kept as familiy treasures, and that such heads would not be sold for their weight in gold, as we can find it in archaeology, where we as well have monuments like the one in Roquepertuse, where a stone portal was adorned with human skulls as we have often enough separate skulls in the settlements and amulets made from human skullbones.
An equivalent belief can also be seen in the Tain, where Conchobar keeps the brain of one of his enemies conserved in Emain Macha, which is later stolen and used as a slingshot against him, which later causes his death.

That the head also had a special significance is also evident from the Mabinogi, where Bran tells his companions to severe his head and take it with them and after entertaining them for 80 years bury it in London with the face towards the continent to ward off any enemies (which could also be seen as an explanation for the human head depictions on artwork). BTW, this motive later becomes part of the early grail legend.

What belief it exactly was that was connected to the head (especially the severed head) is unknown, but it has often been speculated that the head was seen as the part of the body that contained the soul, so it could well be that the one who had the head of a person also had his soul.

MAGIC

That the Celts believed in some kind of magic is evident. The most obvious belief is the one in what in Irish is called “Geis”, plural “Gessa”, which could be best traslated as “Prohibition, Taboo”. Such gessa could be anything from not eating with three women to not hunting birds, but also could include tests in the kind of “it is geis for you to not return here until you have done this and that”.

AFTERLIFE BELIEFS

Much has been already speculated about the afterlife beliefs of the Celts, but almost all is based upon a short notice in Caesar’s De Bello Gallico, where he states: “The druids teach that the soul is immortal, that it moves from one to the other after death”. This has been interpreted as a belief in rebirth similar to the Hindu reincarnation belief. However, it is more likely that what was really meant was a belief in that the soul lives on in an otherworld.

BELIEFS CONNECTED TO THE CREATION/END OF THE WORLD

We know almost nothing about the pagan Celtic beliefs about the creation of the world and its end. It can however be speculated, that the creation was seen similar as in most other IE religions as the Eartch mother giving birth to the world.

On the end of the world we equally have almost no information. However, it can be guessed from statements as famous as “we fear nothing but that the heavens may fall down on our heads”, which we know was said to Alexander the Great by Celts on the lower Danube as well as it finds itself in the Tain as the famous last words of Cuchullains (foster)father, that there existed a belief that at the end of the world the heaven would fall down on earth

Sep 23

The Druids and Druidism

The Druids and Druidism

Introduction

The religion of Druidism was unlike any other belief either Celtic or Roman. The Druids were considered to be enigmatic, mystical, magical – and resented. Originally they were a tribe in Gaul, and gradually developed over the years to become wanderers in Celtic society.

The people of the Iron Age did not understand nature or why events happened. Crop failures, infant mortality, the seasons were explained by putting any negative events down to ‘the will of the gods’. So anyone who was reputed to have unknown powers was treated with distrust.

The Druids were travellers, giving guidance and wisdom to the natives of the land. Even the name ‘Druid’ means ‘Knowledge of the oak’ and ‘Profound knowledge’. They were believed to be demigods, beings in human form who were somewhere between humans and the gods.

Their order was based on a strict hierarchy with an elected arch-druid. An election process that was known to degrade into physical confrontation between those involved, both as delegates and voters.

Caesar

They officiate at the worship of the gods, regulate public and private sacrifices, and give rulings on all religious questions. Large numbers of young men flock to them for instruction, and they are held in great honour by the people. They act as judges in practically all disputes whether between tribes or between individuals.

The druids were considered to be a tribe without a home, they did not pay taxes, or serve any country or tribe in war. As such, they attracted a very large number of young men as potential priests. To be admitted into Druidism involved a considerable amount of work. Candidates for admission had to learn vast quantities of information, which reputedly took many of them twenty years to absorb.

Caesar
The Druids believe that their religion forbids them to commit their teachings to writing… but I imagine that this rule was originally established for other reasons. Because they did not want their doctrines to become public property and in order to prevent their pupils from relying on the written word and neglecting to train their memories.

This was totally false, as the Celtic language did not have a written form. The only possible communication was the oral kind. To overcome this, the Druids recorded their teachings in poetic verse. This meant they could memorise their rituals, history, folklore etc. in a much easier form. It was not until much later in history that the Celtic language was committed to paper.

Druidism had another reason to be despised by both Celt and Roman. Both societies had rituals of sacrifice in their pagan religious ceremonies. But these only involved animals. The Druids practiced the sacrifice of humans. The Romans especially condemned this action as barbaric. Hypocritical, considering the Roman lust for blood and death in the arena.

Caesar
Those who are involved in disputes assemble here from all parts and accept the Druids ‘judgements and awards.’

The Romans had even more reason to want to see the Druids destroyed. The Druids were organisers , capable of bring Celt together with Celt in a united front against the Roman empire.

Druidism had three distinct levels of categories.

Bards were the recorders of history, poetry and the arts.
Augurers took charge of the religious rituals, the sacrifices and were the soothsayers, foretelling the future.

Druids were the spreaders of the religious word. Knowledgable of the law and philosophy, they were the ones who travelled amongst communities advising of issues and dispensing wisdom.

Druid rituals

One of the aspects in which Druidism was in great demand amongst Celtic society, was in the field of mystical and spiritual aid to the tribes.

If a tribe wanted their livestock to prosper and grow, they would ask the Druids to perform a particular ceremony. This involved the removal of a mistletoe plant from an oak tree. Even this action was ritualistic by cutting the mistletoe from the tree with a golden sickle and letting in fall into a white robe, thereby avoiding it coming into contact with human flesh.

Then two white bulls would be killed, while those assembled chanted prayers to the gods. The Celts believed mistletoe made into a drink could be fed to animals to make them more fertile and healthy, and was a universal cure for all poisons.

Sep 23

Celtic Religion and Beliefs

Celtic religions and beliefs

Celtic beliefs and superstitions

The Iron Age Celts, who flourished from around 700 BCE to 400 CE, held a polytheistic belief system with a pantheon of gods and goddesses. They believed in the sanctity of the natural world, with certain landscapes such as groves, springs, and river sources being considered sacred. These sites often housed temples and shrines where the druids, the priestly class, conducted rituals and sacrifices to appease the deities. The druids were central figures in Celtic society, revered for their wisdom and knowledge of the natural world and the mystical forces within it. They were responsible for religious ceremonies, divination, and the interpretation of omens, as well as maintaining the oral history of their people.

Sacrifice was a significant aspect of Celtic worship, with offerings ranging from valuable objects to animals and even humans, believed to ensure the favour of the gods. Weapons were also offered to the gods by casting them into bodies of water, which were seen as portals to the Otherworld. The human head was venerated, with the skulls of ancestors and enemies often kept for worship. The Celts saw supernatural forces in every aspect of nature, with celestial bodies like the moon, sun, and stars playing a crucial role in their belief system.

The Roman conquest and the spread of Christianity led to the decline of the Celtic religion. However, the legacy of their beliefs can still be seen in various cultural practices and folklore across regions that were once Celtic territories. The reverence for nature and the mystical, which characterized the Celtic belief system, continues to fascinate and influence people around the world today.

The Druids

The Druids were a high-ranking priestly class within ancient Celtic cultures, revered for their vast knowledge and authority in various domains of life. They were the intellectual elite, serving not only as religious leaders but also as legal authorities, adjudicators, lore keepers, medical professionals, and political advisors. The druids are believed to have been literate; however, they left no written records, possibly due to a doctrine that forbade it. Much of what is known about them comes from accounts by contemporaries from other cultures, such as the Romans and Greeks. The earliest references to the druids date back to the 4th century BC, with the most detailed early description by Julius Caesar in his “Commentarii de Bello Gallico” from the 50s BCE. Roman writers like Cicero, Tacitus, and Pliny the Elder also provided descriptions of the druids.

Following the Roman invasion of Gaul, the druid orders faced suppression under the Roman emperors Tiberius and Claudius in the 1st century CE and had vanished from the written record by the 2nd century. The term ‘druid’ resurfaces in historical records around 750 AD in a poem by Blathmac, who compared Jesus Christ favourably against the druids. In medieval tales from Christianized Ireland, such as “Táin Bó Cúailnge,” druids are often depicted as sorcerers resisting the advent of Christianity.

The revival of interest in Celtic culture during the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of fraternal and neopagan groups inspired by ancient Druidry, a movement known as Neo-Druidism. However, many modern conceptions of the druids are based on misconceptions from 18th-century scholars and have been largely revised by more recent studies. The etymology of the word ‘druid’ is derived from Latin ‘druidēs’ and is believed to originate from a native Gaulish word. The association of druids with oak trees, suggested by Pliny the Elder, has been questioned, and the term is now thought to mean ‘one with firm knowledge’ or ‘a great sage’.

In Iron Age Britain, life was deeply influenced by the druids. They were central figures in society, often holding more importance than the tribal leaders themselves. Druids could be both men and women, acting as healers, judges, and educators. They were believed to possess the ability to see into the future and were integral to the spiritual and religious life of the people. They led ceremonies, including animal and sometimes human sacrifices, and made offerings to the spirits, which were buried or cast into bodies of water. The druids were also responsible for the education of the youth, ensuring the transmission of their rich oral tradition and knowledge of the natural world, which was integral to the Celtic way of life.

The Iron Age was a period of significant development in Britain, with the introduction of iron tools greatly enhancing farming and leading to larger settlements. The society was structured around clans and tribes led by warrior kings, and the druids played a crucial role in maintaining the balance between the physical and spiritual aspects of life. Their influence extended beyond the spiritual realm into the daily lives of the Iron Age people, reflecting a culture that valued wisdom, knowledge, and harmony with the natural world. The legacy of the druids continues to fascinate and inspire people today, reflecting the enduring allure of these enigmatic figures who once held sway over ancient Celtic lands.

Druidic beliefs

The religious beliefs of the Druids, the learned class of the Ancient Celts, are not precisely known due to the lack of written records from the Druids themselves. However, it is widely accepted that they practised a form of polytheism, worshipping multiple deities who were closely associated with natural elements and phenomena. The Druids held a deep reverence for nature, seeing the divine in rivers, trees, stones, and the sky. This pantheistic view recognized the Earth itself as sacred, and they believed in the interconnectedness of all living things.

Druids also believed in an Otherworld, a realm beyond the physical, where spirits and deities resided. This belief in the afterlife was integral to their practices, which included rites of passage that symbolically represented death and rebirth. They celebrated seasonal festivals that marked significant transitions in the natural world, aligning their spiritual practices with the rhythms of the Earth.

The concept of animism was also central to Druidic belief, with the idea that all elements of the landscape, such as mountains or rivers, possessed spirits. Such beliefs likely influenced their practices of divination and use of omens, as they sought to understand and communicate with these spirits.

Druidic rituals often involved offerings and sacrifices, which could include animals or, according to some Roman sources, even humans, although this is debated among historians. These acts were meant to appease the deities and ensure balance and harmony within their communities.

The Druids’ role as mediators between the physical and spiritual worlds was reflected in their position as advisors to the tribal leaders, guiding them with their knowledge of the divine will as interpreted through omens and signs.

Tribal pantheons

The Iron Age in Britain was a period marked by the emergence of tribal societies, each with its own distinct cultural practices and belief systems. The pantheons of these tribes were diverse, often localized, and are understood primarily through archaeological findings and the accounts of Roman and Greek historians. The tribal societies were organized into groups ruled by chieftains, and their religious practices were deeply intertwined with their daily lives, reflecting a world where the natural and the supernatural were closely linked.

The Celts, who were the predominant cultural group during the British Iron Age, had a polytheistic belief system with over 400 deities, each associated with aspects of life and the natural world, such as rivers, warfare, and craftsmanship. These deities were not universally worshipped but were often venerated in specific regions or by particular tribes. For instance, the tribe known as the Brigantes, which was one of the most powerful tribes in Northern Britain, might have had a pantheon that included deities associated with their territorial lands and warfare, given their known military prowess.

Evidence suggests that the Iron Age Britons’ religious practices included offerings and sacrifices, which could range from valuable metalwork to human lives, as part of their rituals to appease or gain favour from their gods. Sacred spaces, such as groves, springs, and hillforts, played a significant role in their worship, serving as communal places for religious ceremonies and gatherings. The Druids, a class of priests, bards, and soothsayers, were integral to the religious life of the Celtic tribes, overseeing rituals and maintaining the oral traditions that conveyed religious lore.

The transition from the Iron Age to the Roman period brought significant changes to the tribal pantheons of Britain. As the Romans conquered and settled in Britain, they introduced their own gods and religious practices, leading to a syncretism where local deities were often equated with Roman gods, blending the two belief systems. This syncretization is evident in the archaeological record, where inscriptions and iconography show a fusion of Celtic and Roman religious symbols and deities.

The study of Iron Age tribal pantheons is complex due to the scarcity of written records from the period. Most of what is known comes from the interpretation of archaeological evidence, such as votive offerings, inscriptions, and sacred sites, as well as the writings of Roman authors who often had their own biases and agendas. Despite these challenges, the pantheons of the Iron Age tribes provide a fascinating glimpse into the spiritual life of ancient Britons, revealing a society deeply connected to its gods and the natural world. The reverence for these deities and the rituals performed in their honour reflect the tribes’ desires for harmony, protection, and prosperity within their communities.

Belief in Iron Age Brigantia

The Brigantes, an Iron Age tribe in Britain, are known to have worshipped a pantheon of deities that were deeply intertwined with their daily life and natural environment. The name ‘Brigantes’ itself is derived from the Proto-Celtic *brigant-, which means “high” or “elevated,” and is linked to the goddess Brigantia, who was likely one of the principal deities of the tribe. Brigantia, associated with sovereignty and the land, may have been venerated as a protector and provider, embodying the power and prestige of the tribe. The Brigantes’ religious practices would have been polytheistic, venerating various gods and goddesses that represented different aspects of life and nature.

Archaeological evidence, such as the Stanwick Horse Mask, suggests that horses were significant in Brigantian culture, possibly indicating a deity or deities associated with horses, warfare, or the sun. The lack of written records from the Brigantes themselves means that much of what is known comes from Roman sources and archaeological interpretations. The Romans, who conquered the Brigantes during the reign of Antoninus Pius around AD 155, documented some aspects of Brigantian society, but their accounts were often biased and incomplete.

The Brigantes’ religious practices likely included rituals and ceremonies conducted by druids, who were the intellectual elite and spiritual leaders of Celtic tribes. These ceremonies might have taken place in natural settings like groves or near bodies of water, which were considered sacred. Offerings of weapons, jewellery, and other valuables have been found in such locations, suggesting ritual deposits made to curry favour with or give thanks to the gods.

The Brigantes’ pantheon would have also included local deities unique to their tribe and region, reflecting the interconnectedness of their society with the specific landscapes they inhabited. The presence of votive offerings and the construction of shrines at sites like Aldborough, believed to be the Roman town of Isurium Brigantum, provide further evidence of religious activities.

While the full extent of the Brigantes’ pantheon remains a mystery, the fusion of archaeological findings and historical accounts paints a picture of a rich spiritual life that played a central role in the identity and governance of the tribe. The Brigantes, like many Celtic tribes, had a deeply animistic religion, seeing the divine in the natural world around them. This connection to the land and its spirits would have been fundamental to their world-view, influencing everything from their political structures to their art and warfare.

The Brigantes’ tribal pantheon in Iron Age Britain was a complex tapestry of deities and spiritual beliefs that were integral to their culture and society. While the specifics of many of these deities and practices are lost to time, the legacy of the Brigantes’ spirituality continues to intrigue and fascinate historians and archaeologists alike.

The Brigantes had a rich spiritual tradition with a pantheon that included various deities, although much of the specifics remain shrouded in the mists of history. Beyond Brigantia, who was a central figure in their worship, the Brigantes likely venerated gods and goddesses common to Celtic polytheism, each associated with aspects of nature, war, fertility, and sovereignty.

Given the widespread practice of syncretism during the Roman occupation, it is plausible that the Brigantes worshipped deities that were later equated with Roman gods. For instance, the horse was a significant symbol in Brigantian culture, which might suggest the worship of a deity akin to Epona, the protector of horses, known from other Celtic regions and embraced by the Romans.

The presence of votive offerings and inscriptions found in the region, such as those at Aldborough, hint at a complex religious life where local deities were revered alongside more widely recognized gods. These local deities would have been deeply connected to the land and its features, such as rivers, hills, and forests, embodying the tribe’s relationship with their environment.

The Brigantes’ religious practices also included the veneration of ancestral spirits and heroes, which was a common feature in Celtic belief systems. These figures would have been honoured through storytelling, ritual feasting, and the erection of standing stones or other monuments.

The lack of direct written records from the Brigantes themselves complicates the task of identifying their deities. However, through the study of place names, archaeological finds, and the writings of Roman historians, scholars have pieced together a tapestry of religious life that suggests a diverse and vibrant pantheon.

Hints of past belief that remain today

The historical continuity of sacred sites from the Iron Age through the Roman period and into the Christian era in Britain is a fascinating subject that reflects the complex layers of religious and cultural evolution. The Iron Age in Britain, which lasted from about 800 BC until the Roman invasion in AD 43, was characterized by various religious practices often centred around natural phenomena and the veneration of a pantheon of deities. These practices were deeply rooted in the landscape, with certain locations holding spiritual significance that likely predates written history.

With the Roman conquest, these sites often became focal points for the imposition of Roman religious structures and deities. The Romans were known for their syncretic approach to religion, readily incorporating and adapting local gods within their own pantheon. This practice facilitated the Romanization of conquered territories, as it allowed for a degree of religious continuity while also establishing Roman cultural dominance. Evidence suggests that many prehistoric religious sites continued to be used during the Roman period, with the addition of Roman architectural styles and iconography.

The process of Christianization in Britain began in the 4th century but gained significant momentum following the mission of St. Augustine to Kent in AD 597. As Christianity spread, it too absorbed elements of the preceding religious traditions. Early Christian missionaries often built churches on sites that were already considered sacred, which may have included former Iron Age and Roman religious sites. This practice helped to ease the transition to Christianity by providing a sense of spiritual continuity, even as the new religion sought to distinguish itself from the old beliefs.

The incorporation of Celtic and Roman iconography into Christian settings is evident in the survival of certain motifs, such as the Green Man and archaic Celtic heads, within church architecture. The Green Man, often depicted as a face surrounded by or made of leaves, is a motif that appears in many cultures and is generally interpreted as a symbol of rebirth and the cyclical nature of life. Its presence in medieval church carvings has been variously interpreted as a representation of the triumph of Christianity over paganism, a symbol of the natural world, or a vestige of earlier religious beliefs that survived within the new Christian context.

Similarly, the use of archaic Celtic heads in church architecture may reflect a continuity of local artistic traditions and the integration of older religious symbols into Christian worship. These heads, which can be stylistically linked to pre-Christian Celtic art, may have served as a means of connecting the community’s ancestral past with its present faith, thus creating a bridge between the old and the new.

In summary, the religious landscape of Britain is a palimpsest, with each successive layer of belief and practice leaving its mark on the physical and spiritual geography of the land. From the Iron Age through the Roman period and into the Christian era, the sacred sites of Britain have evolved, reflecting the dynamic interplay between continuity and change in religious expression. This evolution is a testament to the adaptability of spiritual traditions and the enduring human desire to connect with the divine through the fabric of the familiar world. The incorporation of older religious elements into Christian worship demonstrates the complex and often subtle ways in which religions interact and influence each other over time.

Karl Raimund CELTIC RELIGION – WHAT INFORMATION DO WE REALLY HAVE

Sep 23

Celtic Festivals

Celtic Festivals

By celebrating the natural cycle of the year through ritual, Celts attune themselves to nature and the divine that is inherent in all things. The following dates are given for the Northern Hemisphere using the modern ‘Western’ Gregorian calendar.

Celtic New Year’s Eve/Day (Samhain/All Hallow’s Eve or Halloween)

31st October/1st November It is said to be the time when the veil between the worlds is very thin, when souls that are leaving this physical plane can pass out and souls that are reincarnating can pass in.
Darkness increases and the Goddess reigns as the Crone, part of the three-in-one that also includes the Maiden and Mother.
The God, the Dark Lord, passes into the underworld to become the seed of his own rebirth (which will occur again at Yule). Many prepare a Feast for the Dead on Samhain night, where they leave offerings of food and drink for the spirits. Divination is heightened this night. Jack-o-lanterns, gourds, cider, fall foliage can be used as altar decorations.

Yuletide, or Yule for short. Time of the Winter Solstice

21st December Yuletide coincides closely with the Christian Christmas celebration. That’s because the early Church sought to win the allegiance of the populace by placing its festivals at or around the time of existing Pagan festivals.

This Sabbat represents the rebirth of light. Here, on the longest night of the year, the Goddess gives birth to the Sun Child and hope for new light is reborn.
Yule is a time of awakening to new goals and leaving old regrets behind.
The so-called ‘Christmas Tree’ has it’s origins in the Yule celebration (of both the Celtic and the Germanic Tradition). Families would bring a live tree into the home, so the wood spirits would have a place to keep warm during the cold winter months. Bells were hung in the limbs so you could tell when a spirit was present. Food and treats were hung on the branches for the spirits to eat and a five-pointed star, the pentagram, a symbol of the five elements, was placed on the top of the tree.
The colours of the season, red and green, also are of Pre-Christian origin, as is the custom of exchanging gifts.
A solar festival, Yule is celebrated by fire and the use of a Yule log. A piece of the log is saved and kept throughout the year to protect the home. That piece is used to light the next year’s log.

Imbolc or Candlemas (Candle Mass)

2nd February Candlemas involves celebrations of banishing the winter and welcoming the spring.
At the time of Candlemas, the newborn Sun God is seen as a small child nursing from his Mother.
At this phase of the cycle, winter is swept away, and new beginnings are nurtured. Some favour this time of year for initiations into the Pre-Christian Native Faith groups. It is traditional at Candlemas to light every lamp in the house for a few minutes in honour of the Sun’s rebirth.

Ostara/Ēostre (Easter) The Spring/Vernal Equinox

21st March The Spring (or Vernal) Equinox is the point of equilibrium – the balance is suspended just before spring bursts forth from winter. The God and Goddess are young children at play and holiday (Holy Day) festivals use brightly coloured eggs to represent the child within.
The ‘Easter Bunny’ also is of Pre-Christian Celtic-Germanic origin, as are baskets of flowers. Traditionally, Ostara (the German name for the Germanic Goddess also called Idunn and Ēostre – Easter) is a time for collecting wild flowers, walking in nature’s beauty and cultivating herb gardens. This is the time to free yourself from anything in the past that is holding you back.

Beltane/Thrimilci/Walburg (Various Spellings)

30th April/1st May   Beltane is the time of the sacred marriage which honours the fertility of the Earth; it represents the divine union of the Lord and Lady. Celebrations include weaving a web of life around the Maypole and leaping the Beltane fire for luck. Traditional Celtic Hand Fastings (Marriages) are common at this festival.
This is a time of self-discovery, love, union and developing your potential for personal growth.

Litha/Mid-Summer, The Summer Solstice

21st June The Summer Solstice, the longest day, is a time of triumph for the light. This holiday (Holy Day) represents the Sun King in all his glory. In many Celtic Traditionalist celebrations, this is when the Oak King, who represents the waxing year, is triumphed over by the Holly King, who represents the waning year. The two are one: the Oak King is the growing youth while the Holly King is the mature man. Healings and love magick are especially suitable at this time. Mid-summer night’s eve is supposed to be a good time to commune with field and forest sprites.

Lammas/Lughnassadh

2nd August   This is the celebration of the first fruits of the harvest. The Sun King, now Dark Lord, gives his energy to the crops to ensure life while the Mother prepares to give way to her aspect as the Crone.
Now is the time to teach what you have learned, to share the fruits of your achievements with the world.
Wheat weaving, such as the making of corn dollies, is traditional. Bread is baked and the altar is decorated with fruits and vegetables of the harvest.

Mabon, The Autumn (Or Fall) Equinox

21st September At the Autumn Equinox, the days and nights are equal. It is a time of balance, but light gives way to increased darkness.
It is the second harvest, and the Goddess mourns her fallen consort, but the emphasis is on the message of rebirth that can be found in the harvest seeds. It is a good time to walk the forests, gathering dried plants for use as altar decorations or herbal magick. Cornbread and cider are good additions to festivities and fall leaves make good altar decorations.

Sep 23

Baal

Baal, Baalim

BAAL WORSHIP

But the religious customs of the Covenant people became corrupted with the religion of the Phoenician Canaanites. The Prophet Elijah’s challenge of the Hebrew priests of Baal is one of the most moving Bible accounts. (I Ki.18:18-40) The Bible indicates that at one time the majority of Hebrew priests and people followed the rituals of Baal worship. Noted 19th century antiquarian, Sir William Betham, made an exhaustive study of the ancient Celtic peoples, and states in his book, The Gael and Cimbri, “Baal… has the precise meaning in Gaelic as in Phoenician — the lord of heaven.” (p. 226) Many customs hearken back to Palestine, as well; “even the cakes which the idolatrous Jews, in imitation of the Phoenicians, made in honour of the queen of heaven are still the most popular cake in Ireland under the old name of the barn-brack, or speckled cake.” (p. 236) Ancient customs and rituals are persistent among mankind, and therefore provide tangible evidence of a people’s origins, even where no written proof survives. Betham comments, “Thus we see at this day, fires lighted up in Ireland, on the eve of the summer solstice and the equinoxes, to the Phoenician god, Baal, and even called Baal’s fire, baaltinnes, though the object of veneration be forgotten…” (p. 222-223) In addition, archaeological proof points to a Hebrew-Phoenician origin of the Britons and Irish. Betham relates, “On an altar-stone, dug up near Kirby Thore, in Westmorland, is this inscription:”

“DEO BEL ATUCADRO LIB[ERUM] VOTUM. FECIT IOLUS.”

The text translates as follows: “To the god Baal, the friend of man, Iolus made his free vow.”

Numerous other stone altars to Phoenician gods, which have been discovered in Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, are discussed and translated in Betham’s work. Some of the principal finds include altar-stones found in Northumbria and other parts of Britain. He states that these ancient monuments to “Baal, by the ancient British… are unanswerable evidences of the identity of the people of the two islands {i.e., Britain and Ireland] and Gaul, which the most unwilling and incredulous caviler at etymologies, can scarcely refuse to receive as conclusive. It proves more, for it shows an identity of the deities of the Celtae and the [Hebrew]-Phoenicians…” (p. 228-229)

Numerous other parallels exist between Celtic and Hebrew-Canaanite worship, including mystic well-worship, worship of sacred stones, and the veneration of the autumnal equinoxes. In fact, both the Canaanites and Celts practiced autumnal sacrifices to Baal, which the Celts called, “Baal-tinnes,” as previously mentioned.

(Hebrew Bá’ál; plural, Be`alîm.)

https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02175a.htm

A word which belongs to the oldest stock of the Semite vocabulary and primarily means “lord”, “owner”. So in Hebrew, a man is styled baal of a house (Ex., xxii, 7: Judges, xix, 22), of a field (Job, xxi, 39), of cattle (Ex., xxi, 28; Isa., i, 3) of wealth (Eccles, v, 12), even of a wife (Ex, xxi, 3; cf. Gen., iii, 16). The women’s position in the Oriental home explains why she is never called Bá`alah of her husband). So also we read of a ram, “baal” of two horns (Dan, viii, 6, 20), of a baal of two wings (i.e. fowl: Eccles., x, 20). Joseph was scornfully termed by his brother a baal of dreams (Gen., xxxvii, 19). And so on. (See IV Kings, i, 8: Isa., xli, 15; Gen., xlix, 23; Ex., xxiv, 14, etc.) Inscriptions afford scores of evidence of the word being similarly used in the other Semitic languages. In the Hebrew Bible, the plural, be`alîm, is found with the various meanings of the singular; whereas in ancient and modern translations it is used only as a referring deities. It has been asserted by several commentators that by baalim the emblems or images of Baal (hámmanîm, máççebhôth, etc.) should be understood. This view is hardly supported by the texts, which regularly points out, sometimes contemptuously, the local or other special Baals.

BAAL AS A DEITY

When applied to a deity, the word Baal retained its connotation of ownership, and was, therefore, usually qualified. The documents speak, for instance, of the Baal of Tyre, of Harran, of Tarsus, of Herman, of Lebanon of Tamar (a river south of Beirut), of heaven. Moreover, several Baals enjoyed special attributions: there was a Baal of the Covenant (Bá`ál Berîth (Judges, viii, 33; ix 4); cf. ‘El Berîth (ibid., ix, 46}; one of the flies (Bá`ál Zebub, IV Kings, i, 2, 3, 6, 16,); there also probably was one of dance (Bá`ál Márqôd); perhaps one of medicine (Bá`ál Márphê), and so on. Among all the Semites, the word, under one form or another (Bá`ál in the West and South; Bel in Assyria; Bal, Bol, or Bel im Palmyra) constantly recurs to express the deity’s lordship over the world or some part of it. Not were all the Baals — of different tribes, places, sanctuaries — necessarily conceived as identical; each one might have his own nature and his own name; the partly fish shaped Baal of Arvad was probably Dagon; the Baal of Lebanon, possible Cid “the hunter”; the Baal of Harran, the moongod; whereas in several Sabean Minaean cities, and in many Chanaanite, Phoenician, or Palmyrene shrines, the sun was the Baal worshipped, although Hadad seems to have been the chief Baal among the Syrians. The diversity of the Old Testament intimates by speaking of Baalim, in the plural, and specifying the singular Baal either by the article or by the addition of another word.

What the original conception was is most obscure. According to W.R. Smith, the Baal is a local God who, by fertilizing his own district through springs and streams, becomes its lawful owner. Good authorities, nevertheless, oppose this view, and reversing the above argument, hold that the Baal is the genius-lord of the place and of all the elements that cause its fecundity; it is he who gives “bread, water, wool, flax, oil, and drink” (Os, ii, 5; in the Hebr. text 7); he is the male principle of life and reproduction in nature, and such is sometimes honoured by acts of the foulest sensuality. Whether or not this idea sprang from, and led to the monotheistic conception of supreme deity, the Lord of Heaven, of whom the various Baals would be so many manifestations, we shall leave to scholars to decide. Some deem that the bible favours this view, for its language frequently seems to imply the belief in a Baal par excellence.

BAAL-WORSHIP AMONG THE GENTILES

The evidence is hardly of such weight as to justify us in speaking of a worship of Baal. The Baal-worship so often alluded to and described in Holy Writ might, perhaps, be better styled, Çid-worship, moon-worship, Melek (Moloch)-worship, or Hadad-worship, according to places and circumstances. Many of the practices mentioned were most probable common to the worship of all the Baals; a few others are certainly specific.

A custom common among Semites should be noticed here. Moved, most likely, by the desire to secure the protection of the local Baal for their children, the Semites always showed a preference for names compounded with that of the deity; those of Hasdrubal (`Azrû Bá`ál), Hannibal (Hanni Bá`ál), Baltasar, or Belshazzar (Bel-sar-Ushshur), have become famous in history. Scores of such names belonging to different nationalities are recorded in the Bible, and in ancient writers, and in inscriptions.

The worship of Baal was performed in the sacred precincts of the high places so numerous throughout the country (Num., xxii, 41; xxxiii, 52; Deut., xii, 2, etc) or in temples like those of Samaria (III Kings, xvi, 32; IV Kings, x, 21-27) and Jerusalem (IV Kings, xi, 18), even on the terraced roofs of the houses (IV Kings, xxiii, 12; Jer., xxxii, 29). The furniture of these sanctuaries probably varied with the Baals honoured there. Near the altar which existed everywhere (Judges, vi 25; III Kings, xviii, 26; IV Kings, xi, 18; Jer., xi, 13, etc.), might be found, according to the particular place, either an image of the deity (Hadad was symbolized by a calf), or the bætylion (i.e. sacred stone, regularly cone-shaped in Chanaan) supposed to have been originally intended to represent the world, abode of the god; of the hammanim (very possible sunpillars; Lev., xxvi, 30; II Par., xxiv, 4, etc.), and asherah (wrongly interpreted grove in our Bibles; Judges, vi, 25; III Kings, xiv, 23; IV Kings, xvii, 10; Jer., xvii, 2 etc.), a sacred pole, sometimes, possible, a tree, the original signification of which is far from clear, together with votive or commemorative stelae (máççebhôth, usually mistranslated images), more or less ornamented. There incense and perfumes were burned (IV Kings, xxii, 5; Jer., vii, 9, xi, 13, and according to the Hebrew, xxxii, 29), libations poured (Jer., xix, 13), and sacrifices of oxen and other animals offered up to the Baal; we hear even (Jer., vii, 31;xix, 5;xxxii, 35; II Par., xxviii 3) that children of both sexes were not infrequentlly burned in sacrifice to Melek (D. V. Moloch, A.V. Molech), and II Par., xxviii, 3 (perhaps also IV Kings, xxi, 6 ) tells us that young princes were occasionally chosen as victims to this stern deity. In several shrines long trains of priests, distributed into several classes (III Kings, xviii, 19; IV Kings, x, 19; xxiii, 5; Soph., i, 4, etc.) and clad in special attire (IV Kings, x, 22) performed the sacred function; they prayed, shouted to the Baal, led dances around the altar, and in their frenzied excitement cut themselves with knives and lancets, till they were all covered with blood (III Kings, xviii, 26-28). In the meantime the lay worshippers also prayed, kneeling, and paid their homage by kissing the images or symbols of the Baal (III Kings, xix, 18; Os., xiii, 2, Hebr.), or even their own hands. To this should be added the immoral practices indulged in at several shrines (III Kings, xiv, 24; IV Kings, xxiii, 7; cf. Deut., xxiii, 18) in honour of the Baal as male of reproduction, and of his mate Asherah (D.V. Astarthe, A. V. Ashtaroth).

BAAL WORSHIP-AMONG THE ISRAELITES

Nothing could be more fatal to a spiritual faith than this sensual religion. In fact, no sooner than the Israelites, coming forth from the wilderness, been brought into contact with the Baal-worshippers, than they were, through the guile of the Madianites, and the attractions of the licentious worship offered to the Moabitish deity (probably Chamos), easily seduced from their allegiance to Yahweh (Num., xxv, 1-9). Henceforth the name of Beelphegor remained like a dark spot on the early history of Israel {Os., ix, 10; Ps. ev (In the Hebr. cvi), 28}. The terrible punishment inflicted upon the guilty sobered for awhile the minds of the Hebrews. How long the impression lasted we are hardly able to tell; but this we know, that when they had settled in the Promised Land, the Israelites, again forsaking the One True God, paid their homage to the deities of their Chanaanite neighours (Judges, ii, 11, 13 etc.). Even the best families could not, or did not dare, resist the seduction, Gedon’s father, for instant, albeit his faith in his Baal seems to have been somewhat lukewarm (Judges, vi, 31), had erected an idolatrous altar in Ephra (Judges, vi, 25). “And the Lord, being angry against Israel, delivered them into the hands of their enemies that dwelt round about.” Mesopotamians, Madianites, Amalecites, Ammonites, and, above all, Philistines, were successively the providential avengers of God’s disregarded rights.

During the warlike reigns of Saul and David, the Israelites as a whole thought little of shaking Yahweh’s yoke; such also was, apparently, the situation under Solomon’s rule, although the example given by this prince must have told deplorably upon his subjects. After the division of his empire, the Northern Kingdom, first led by its rulers to an unlawful worship of Yahweh, sank speedily into the grossest Chanaanite superstitions. This was the more easy because certain customs, it seems, brought about confusion in the clouded minds of the uneducated portion of the people. Names like Esbaal (I Par., viii, 33; ix, 39), Meribbaal (I Par., viii, 34; ix, 40), Baaliada (I Par., xiv, 7), given by Saul, Johnathen, and David to their sons, suggest that Yahweh was possibly spoken of as Baal. The fact has been disputed; but the existence of such a name as Baalia ( i.e. “Yahweh is Baal”, I Par., xii, 5) and the affirmation of Osee (ii, 16) are arguments that cannot be slighted. True, the word was used later on only in reference to idolatrous worship, and even deemed so obnoxious that bosheth, shame, was frequently substituted for it in compound proper names, thus giving, for instance, such inoffensive forms as Elioda (II Kings, v, 16), Yerubbesheth (II Kings, xi, 21, Hebr.)., Isboseth (II Kings, ii, 10) and elsewhere, Miphiboseth (II Kings, ix, 6; xxi, 8); but these corrections were due to a spirit which did not prevail until centuries after the age with which we shall presently deal.

Achab’s accession to the throne of Israel inaugarated a new era, that of the official worship. Married to a Sidonian princess, Jezebel, the king erected to the Baal of her native city (Cid or Melkart) a temple (III Kings, xvi, 31, 32) in which a numerous body of priests officiated (III Kings, xviii, 19). To what a forlorn state the true faith in the Northern Kingdom fell Elias relates to III Kings, xix, 10, 14: The children of Israel have forsaken thy covenant: they have thrown down thy altars, they have slain thy prophets with the sword. There remained but seven thousand men whose knees had not been bowed before Baal (III Kings, xix, 18). Ochozias, son of Achab and Jezebel, followed in his parents footsteps (III Kings, xxii, 54) and although Joram, his brother and successor, took away the maccebhoth set up by his father, the Baal-worship was not stamped out of Samaria (IV Kings, iii, 2, 3) until its adherents were slaughtered and its temple destroyed at the command of Jehu (IV Kings, x, 18-28). Violent as this repression was, it hardly survived the prince who had undertaken it. The annals of the reigns of his successors witness to the religious corruption again prevailling; and the author of IV Kings could sum up this sad history in the following few words: They forsook all the precepts of the Lord their God: and made to themselves two molten calves, and groves [asherah], and adored all the host of heaven : and they served Baal. And consecrated their sons, and their daughters through fire: and they gave themselves to divinations, and soothsayings: and they delivered themselves to do evil before the Lord, to provoke him. And the Lord was very angry with Israel, and removed them from his sight . . . . and Israel was carried away out of their land to Assyria, unto this day. (IV Kings, xvii, 16-18, 23).

Meanwhile the kingdom of Juda fared no better. There, also, the princes, far from checking the drift of the people to idolatry, were their instigators and abettors. Established by Joram (IV Kings, viii, 18), probably at the suggestion of Athalia his wife, who was the daughter of Achab and Jezebel, the Phoenician worship was continued by Ochozias (IV Kings, viii, 27). We know from IV Kings, xi, 18 that a temple had been dedicated to Baal (very likely to Baal honoured in Samaria) in the Holy City, either by one of these princes or Athalia. At the latter’s death, this temple was destroyed by the faithful people and its furniture broken to pieces (IV Kings, xi, 18; II Par., xxiii, 17). If this reaction did not crush utterly the Baal-worship in Juda, it left very little of it alive, since, for over a century, no case of idolatry is recorded by the sacred writers. In the reign of Achaz, however, we find the evil not only flourishing again, but countenanced by public authority. But a change has taken place in Juda’s idolatry; instead of the Sidonian Baal, Melek (Moloch), the cruel diety of the Ammonites, had become the people’s favourite (II Par., xxviii, 2; IV Kings, xvi, 3, 4). His barbarous rites rooted out Ezechias, appeared again with the support of Manasses, by whose influence the Assyro-Babylonian astral deities were added to the Pathenon of the Judean idolaters (IV Kings, xxiii, 4, 5) produced no lasting results, and after his death the various superstitions in vogue held sway until “the Lord cast out from his face Juda and Jerusalem” (IV Kings, xxiii, 32, 37; xxiv, 9, 19, and elsewhere).

The Babylonians invasions dealt to the Baal-worship in Palestine a deadly blow. At the restoration Israel shall be Yahweh s people, and He their God (Exech., xiv, 11), and Baal will become altogether a thing of the past.

Selden, De diis syris (1617); Gigot, Biblical Lectures (Baltimore, 1901), V; Id., Outlines Of Jewish History (New York 1905); PEAKES in HASTINGS, Dict. bible, s.v. Baal; THATCHER, ibid., s.v. Phoenicia; OTTLEY, The Religion Of Israel (Cambridge, 1905): SAYCE, The Gods Of Canan, in Contemporary Review for Sept., 1883; W.R. Smith, The Religion Of The Semites (Edinburgh, 1889); BOURQUENOU ET DUTAC, Etudes archeologiques in Etudes Religieuses (1864-1866); LAGRANGE, Etudes sur les religions semitiques (Pairs, 1903); MASPERO, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique (Paris, 1898); REVILLE, La religion des Pheniciens in Revue des deux mondes, for 15 May 1873; TIELE, La religion phenicienne, in Revue de l’histoire des religions (1881), III; VIGOUROUX in Dict. de las bible, s.v. Baal; Id., La bible et les decouvertes modernes (Paris, 1889), III; Id., Les pretres de Baal et leurs successeurs dans l’antiquite et dans le tempra present, in Revue bibilique for April (1896); DE VOGUE, Melanges d’archelogie orientale (Paris 1868); BATHGEN, Beitrage zur semitisches Religionsgeschichte (Berlin, 1888); BAUDISSIN, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1876-78); Id., in HERZOG Realencyklopadie, s.v. Baal und Bel; MARTI, Geschichte der israelitiechen, Religion (1897); MEYER, Ueber einige semitische Gotter, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft (1877); MOVERS, Die Phonizier (1841-56); OORT, Dienst des Baal in Israel (Leyden, 1864); SCHRADER, Baal und Bel, in Theologische Studien und Kritiken (1874); SMEND, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlischen Religionsgeschichte (Greiburg, Leipzig, 1893, 1899)
For use of the plural (Baalim), DRIVER, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, on I Sam., vii, 3; BURNEY, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings, on I (III), xviii 18.

CHARLES L. SOUVAY
Transcribed by Beth Ste-Marie

Sep 23

Celtic Gods

Celtic Gods

The Celts are a subgroup of the Native British, Irish and European ethnic group collectively referred to as the White race. The Celts would not have called themselves Celts, the term derives from the Hellenic (Greek) and Roman terms given to them. Their history begins in Europe around 1,000 B.C.E. (Before the Common or Christian Era) and begins to fade out around 50 B.C.E. This is around the time when the Celts had been ‘pushed’ up into the British Isles. Then, the British Isles themselves, to a large extent, went under Roman occupation. Other subgroups of the Native European people, such as the Germanics, who included the Germans (obviously), the Saxons and the Norse (or Vikings) along with the Celts all came from the same original ancient Indo-Aryan roots. Those familiar with Germanic Mythology will notice a definite similarity between the Celtic and the Germanic Myths. The designs of the clothing, weapons etcetera are also near identical. Then, there is the Indo-European language tree etcetera.

Many Celtic deities seem to have been associated with aspects of nature and worshipped in sacred groves. Some appear in all Celtic areas while others have purely local significance. Many minor gods and goddesses are mentioned in inscriptions and sculptures, but Lugh, Epona and Cernunnos were among the most important. The Celtic oral tradition meant that the myths and legends were not written down until after the Christian church had been established in Britain, so the versions that exist were subject to its influence. The deities were changed into fairies and their powers into magic while the great festivals were included in the Christian calendar.

The Druids or priests were more important than the kings in Celtic society and their decisions were law. Even the king could not speak first. Their training took some years and there were special colleges in which philosophy, law, poems and stories were learnt by rote which preserved the mystery of Druidic doctrines. They were credited with supernatural powers of healing and prophecy and were believed to be able to enter the Otherworld.

God Worship in Roman Brigantia

Numerous inscriptions are found near the line of the Roman Wall, and in or near the Roman camps in Cumberland and Westmorland, addressed to the various deities worshipped by the legionary and auxiliary troops. These divide themselves into some four classes: first, those addressed to the gods and goddesses of the Roman mythology. Thus, many altars have been found in Cumberland dedicated to Jupiter, for instance, by the Dacians at Birdoswald, Lanercost, and Bewcastle; by the Tungrians at Castlesteads, by the Gauls at Old Carlisle; by the Spaniards at Maryport; by the Ala Augusta at Old Carlisle; and by other auxiliary troops elsewhere in the district, while many altars also occur dedicated to Jupiter by individuals.

It has been noted that altars to Jupiter are generally larger and more ornate than those to other gods. Dedications to Mars are by no means so numerous: they occur at Birdoswald, Castlesteads, Old Penrith, Old Carlisle and Brougham, and there was a temple to Mars at Carlisle. Dedications have also occurred to Hercules, to Silvanus the god of hunting, to Victory, personified as a goddess, and to other deities worshipped by the Romans in their own Italy. The genii of the camps and the cohorts, and of the emperors, the nymphs of the fountains, all have their altars. The size and workmanship of these altars, particularly those to Jupiter, lead to the idea that they were inspired by the Roman commanders, and belong to an early period of the occupation.15 The second class of these dedicatory inscriptions are to gods with strange uncouth names, the local gods of the Brythonic Celts.

These altars are generally small and rudely carved, indicating a late period of the occupation, and that they were the work of the rank and file of the Roman legions and their auxiliaries who had intermarried or cohabited with the native women, and so become acquainted with their gods. Thus in Cumberland altars have been found dedicated to Belutucador, to Mogontis, to Vetiris, to Maponus, and to Setlocenia: those to Belutucador have also been found in Westmorland. Some have endeavoured to identify this god with the Phoenician Baal, in which case he would belong to the next class: both he and Cocidius appear joined in dedications with Mars, and so may be Brythonic gods of war. Maponus is conjoined once or twice with Apollo, and may be his native equivalent.

These deities are frequent in, if not peculiar to, Cumberland, and must have been found there by the Romans. The third class consists of dedications to deities imported by the auxiliary troops. This class includes the deæ matres, whose altars and inscriptions are numerous in Belgic Gaul and in Germany, and especially along the banks of the Rhine. They belong to the Teutonic race, and are represented as three seated female figures, with baskets or bowls of fruit on their knees; instances occur, locally, of either dedications to or representations of the deæ matres at Brougham, Old Penrith, Stanwix, Carlisle, Netherby, &c. These are generally rude and poor in execution. The fourth class consists of slabs and sculptured figures, telling of the wave of Mithraic superstition that from the time of Hadrian swept from east to west. The great Mithraic find at Housesteads, in Northumberland, is outside the district we are dealing with, but sculptured stones, indicative of Mithraic worship, have been found at Drawdikes and Murrill Hill, both near Carlisle, and at Maryport.

The Celtic gods

Antenociticus The name of this Celtic god is known from three inscriptions found in a small shrine at Benwell near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Brigit “The High One,” was patron deity of the Brigantes tribe in northern Britain. Associated with water and springs, she was also a goddess of poetry, learning, prophecy, and divination. Links with Minerva include a spear and globe. Another equivalent is the Irish goddess Brigit, namesake of St. Brigit. Long after the fall of the Brigantes as an independent force in Britain, the worship of Brigantia continued throughout the territory, as is witnessed by the many votive offerings found in the region, Halifax and South Shields for example. Flora and Fauna associated with Brigit.

Deae Matres (“Mother Goddesses”) Usually seen as a trinity, these fertility goddesses are often shown holding baskets of fruit, bread, or fish. The Deae Matres were also associated with water and sacred springs, and sometimes fused with local water deities such as Bath. Sculptures of the Matres also occur at Cirencester, Lincoln, and London.

Dea Nutrix Another form of Mother Goddess is “nursing mother” (Dea Nutrix). Clay statuettes of this goddess, mass-produced in Gaul and exported to Britain, show the young goddess seated in a high-backed wicker chair nursing one or two infants.

Epona The Celtic horse goddess, popular in Gaul and Germany, spread to a lesser extent to Britain via Roman cavalry troops. She is invoked in a small altar at Carvoran on Hadrian’s Wall. While always depicted with horses, Epona is sometimes also shown with grain and a patera (offering bowl), which tie her to fertility and prosperity rituals.

Mogons Dedications to this god, whom the Romans identified with Apollo, occur at several fort sites around Hadrian’s Wall, including Netherby, Vindolanda, Risingham, and Old Penrith. Mogons was probably a Germanic import, since the Latin name for Mainz is Mogontiacum.

Rosmerta A Celtic goddess usually found as a companion of the Celtic Mercury in Britain, Germany, and Gaul. She appears on a relief in the Gloucester Museum holding a patera over an altar.

Sulis The patron deity of Bath (Aquae Sulis), she was associated with water, hot springs, and healing. The temple at Bath was dedicated to a composite goddess, Sulis Minerva.

Taranis God of thunder and lightning (taren is Welsh for “thunder”), symbolized by a wheel. Known archaeologically in Gaul and Germany, and mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan in his play Pharsalia, he is linked to Jupiter in an altar from Chester.

Veteris A warrior god, may represent a group of deities. At least seven versions of the same name are recorded in 54 inscriptions, most from the eastern half of Hadrian’s Wall between Carvoran and Benwell. Based on the modest quality of these monuments, Veteris seems to represent a lower class cult. While linked at Netherby to the god Mogons, he is not identified with any Roman gods.

“Horned God” This unnamed god was widely dispersed in Britain, especially in the south, where he was frequently linked with the Roman god Mercury. He often appears with two short horns in uninscribed reliefs. Variants in Gaul have stag antlers, with one inscription from Roman Paris identifying him with Cemunnos (“the homed one”).

Cernunnos – God of the Underworld and of animals. He is depicted as a man with the antlers of a stag.

Taranis – God of the wheel, associated with forces of change.

Bel – Bel or Belenos, God of light.

Bran – Giant who delighted in battle and carnage. He was the son of Lir (or Llyr) and a mortal woman. He led the giants from Wales on their invasion of Ireland, being killed by a poisoned arrow in the battle with Evnissyen which followed the deposition of the Irish king.

Lugh – (Irish), Lugh or Lug was the God of light. He killed his grandfather, Balor, during the Great Battle in which a New Order of Gods and Goddesses took over from the primal beings of chaotic energy. He was the God of skill and ability.

Mabon – Son of Light, equated with the Roman Apollo. He was the God of liberation, harmony, music and unity. His festival is called Mabon, it is the Fall or Autumnal Equinox.

Gwydion – Son of Don, a master of fantasy and illusion, and the teacher of humans of all that is good and useful. He is a friend of Humanity and perpetually fights the Underworld powers for the good gifts they refuse to give to Humanity.

Nuada – (Gaulish) “He Of The Silver Hand” a God of war. The supreme God of the Gauls.

Nudd – Nudd or Lludd is a son of Beli. He was a sky God and is attributed with stopping three Supernatural plagues.

Oenghus – (Irish) God of fatal love and son of Daghdha and Boann.

Ogmios – God of the strength of poetry, charm and incantation. He is depicted as an old man carrying a club and a bow.

Amaethon – Son of Don and God of agriculture.

Angus Og – (Irish) God of love and beauty.

Bladud – (English) Father of King Lear, and was said to have founded Bath having been cured by it’s waters.

Manannan mac Lir – Manannan mac Lir, or Barinthus was the God of the ocean. He ferried the wounded King Arthur to the otherworld so that he could be cured.

Mark – King of Cornwall (now part of England) and uncle of Tristan, and suitor and husband of Isolde.

Naoise – (Irish) Husband of Deirdre. He was killed by his uncle Conchoba 

Llyr – (Welsh) God of the sea, he relates to the Irish Lir.

Luchtaine – God of wheel making.

Gwyn ap Nudd – Gwyn ap Nudd, or Gwyn is the Lord of the Underworld and Master of the Wild Hunt. He lives at Glastonbury Tor.

Gwyrthur ap Greidawl – Gwyrthur ap Greidawl, or Gwyrthur is a rival to Gwyn ap Nudd for the affections of Creurdilad. He is a solar God, representing day.

Herne The Hunter – In English folklore, Herne The Hunter is the spirit of a hunter which guards travellers through Windsor Great Park. He wears the antlers of a stag upon his head. Herne was prominent in the tales of Robin Hood, although Windsor Great Park is nowhere near Sherwood Forest.

Dylan – God of darkness, a twin son of Gwydion and Arianrhod. He was a sea God, and swam like a fish. Upon his death at the hands of a spear thrown by his uncle Govannan, the sea for ever more wept for him in the form of waves crashing on the shore.

Finn MacCool – Irish prophet, warrior and healer. He learned his skills either from touching the flesh of Fintan as he cooked him, or by sipping the God’s wine as he served them at table.

Fintan – Shape changer. He was the only Irish survivor of Noah’s flood, changing into a hawk to soar above the waters and into a salmon to live in them. He ate the God’s magic hazlenuts and received all knowledge, but was netted in a salmon-trap and cooked for the God’s banquet by Finn MacCool who in doing touched Fintan’s flesh and absorbed the knowledge from Fintan turning him into a seer and healer on the spot.

Gawain – Son of King Lot of Orkney or the sun God Lug. Gawain was one of Arthur’s most loyal and noble followers. One New Year’s Eve a green giant rode into the hall at Camelot and challenged the bravest warrior there to cut off his head, and then one year later, to visit the giant’s castle to have his own head chopped off. Gawain accepted the challenge and decapitated the giant, who picked up his head and galloed away. One year later Gawain went in search off the giant and came to the castle of Lord Bertilak and was entertained there for three days and three nights. Each night Bertilak’s wife came to Gawain and tried to seduce him, and each time Gawain resisted her. On the fourth day, alone in the castle grounds Gawain came upon the giant and bent down to have his head cut off. Three times the giant swung the axe, and each time he stopped short, before disappearing and Bertilak stood in his place. Bertilak told Gawain that the entire thing had been a test set by Morgan le Fay to find the bravest of Arthur’s followers, and that each swing of the axe was for a night when he had resisted the attentions of Bertilak’s wife. Had he given in to temptation he would have died.

Aywell – Protector of the independant peoples of Northern England. He was the husband of Mm.

Camulus – In English Celtic Mythology, Camulus (Heaven) was a God of war identified by the Romans with Mars. He gave his name to the town of Camulodunum, now called Colchester.

Cuchulain – Celtic hero, the chief figure in a cycle of Irish legends. He is associated with his uncle Conchobar, King of Ulster; his most famous exploits are described in The Cattle Raid of Cuchulain.

Cuchulinn – Cuchulinn is a hero King of Ulster and son of Lugh. He is a warlike figure and tales tell of his warlike deeds.

Dagda – Dagda was the Celtic equivalent of Cronus. Also called Cian.

Daghdha – (Irish) Great God. He had a secret affair with Boann which resulted in the birth of Oenghus.

Conchobar – King of Ulster whose intended bride, Deidre, eloped with Noisi. Conchobar killed Deidre’s husband and his brothers and she died of sorrow.

Creidhne – God of metal working.

Diancecht – (Irish) God of healing. He destroyed the giant serpent that threatened and destroyed cattle throughout the land.

Dis – (Gaulish) God of death from whom the Gauls were descended.

Goibhniu – Smith God.

Govannan – Son of Don and God of smithcraft.

Gronw Pebyr – God of darkness.

Lir – Lir (or Lleyr or Llyr) was the Old Man of the Sea. He had four beautiful children which he doted on. After his wife died he married her sister who hated him and turned his children into swans, mute and aloof from him. By the time Lir had discovered what had happened to his children and reversed the spell they had aged into withered old people.

Lleu – God of light, a twin son of Gwydion and Arianrhod.

The Celtic Goddesses

Nemetona – Goddess of war.

Nimue – A shape changer who loved Merlin. After a contest of magic she captured him forever by turning herself into a drop of amber and engulfing him.

Penardum – Goddess of the sea married to Llyr.

Rosmerta – (Gaulish) Goddess of fire, warmth, wealth and abundance. A flower Queen and hater of marriage. She was the beldame of death.

Sulis – Goddess of prophesy, inspiration, wisdom and death.

Andraste – Warrior Goddess. She was invoked by Queen Boudicea (also called Boudicca) of the Iceni Tribe when she revolted against the Roman occupation of Britain around 61 C.E.

Arduina – Goddess of woodlands, wild life, the hunt and the moon; Guardian and Eponym of the Ardennes Forest.

Arianrhod – (Welsh) Arianrhod or Arianrod (Silver-Wheel or Silver-Circle) was the Virgin White Goddess of birth, initiation, death and rebirth. She who turns the circle of Heaven. She was a sister and wife of Gwydion.

Mm – Goddess of thought of the independant peoples of what is now Northern England. She never appeared alone, but always followed after her impetuous husband Aywell providing caution to his flashes of uncontrolled energy.

Morrighan – Morrighan or Morrigan. Goddess of war and death who could take the shape of a crow. Appears in the sky over battles and picks the warriors whom are to die.

Etain – Etain (Shining-One) was the Triple Goddess of the sun, water, horses, fragrance, beauty, music and the transmigration of souls.

Fata Morgana – (Irish) Goddess of the sea, visual illusions, enchantment, fate and death. She is the Queen of the Fortunate Isles.

Cordelia – (Welsh) She has two lovers, Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwyrthur ap Greidawl who fight for her on the 1st of May each year and will continue to do so until the day of doom when one shall be victorious and marry her.

Boann – (Irish) Goddess of rivers.

Branwen – Goddess of love. She was a daughter of Llyr.

Brighid – (Gaelic) Brighid or Brigit was the Goddess of metalwork, smiths, poetic inspiration and therapy. With Christianity she was changed into ‘Saint’ Brigit.

Cerridwen – (Welsh) Goddess of dark prophetic powers. She is the keeper of the cauldron of the Underworld, in which inspiration and divine knowledge are brewed.

Creurdilad – Daughter of Lludd and lover of Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwyrthur ap Greidawl. Her Mythology developed into that of Cordelia, with the names of her lovers also amending with time.

Deirdre – Beautiful intended bride of Conchobar. She eloped with NoÌsi, and died of sorrow when Conchobar killed him and his brothers.

Druantia – Goddess of birth, wisdom, death and metempsychosis. The mother of the Irish tree calendar alphabet.

Elaine – Virgin Goddess of beauty and the moon. She was the matron of road building and a loveable leader of hosts.

Epona – Goddess of horses.

Eriu – (Irish) Shapeshifting Goddess of fate. The bestower of sovereignty.

Geofon – Ocean Goddess.

Macha – (Irish) Goddess of athletic games, festivals and fertility.

Isolde – Isolde was the wife of King Mark of Cornwall who was brought from Ireland by his nephew Tristan. She and Tristan accidentally drank the aphrodisiac given to her by her mother for her marriage, were separated as lovers, and finally died together.

Guinevere – Guinevere or Guinever, is the French spelling of the Celtic name Gwynhwfar (‘White Cloud’). Gwynhwfar was a cloud Goddess who often, for mischief, took mortal form and entered the world of Humans to cause havoc. Soon after Arthur became King of Camelot, she entered the womb of a Roman princess whose husband ruled in Britain, and was born, as a beautiful mortal: Guinevere. In due course Arthur married her, against the advice of Merlin. Guinevere was the most beautiful woman in the world, and all Arthur’s knights would have had sex with her if they hadn’t been bound by their oaths of chivalry. Only Lancelot succumbed, and his and Guinevere’s adultery broke Arthur’s heart and led to the end of Camelot. When the company of the Round Table was broken up and its heroes disappeared into legend, Guinevere resumed her identity as Gwynhwfar, returned to the sky and has ever since been planning her next earthly manifestation.

Other Beings

Banshee – (Gaelic) Female spirit whose wailing outside a house foretells the death of one of its inhabitants.

Bebhionn – (Irish) Giantess from the Maiden’s Land far off the West coast of Ireland known for her beauty and seduction.

Badb – (Irish) Tall Giantess form of Morrighan.

Blodeuwedd – Wife of Lleu. She was created by Gwydion and Math from the blossoms of the oak, broom and meadow-sweet and presented to Lleu as a bride.

Another List of Gods

Notes on various Celtic Pantheons
Compiled by I. Marc Carlson
Celtic Gods – Ancient
—————————————-
Bolgios (Celtic) War God?
Brennos (Celtic) War God?
Epona (Celtic) Goddess of the Horse
Moccos (Celtic) Boar God
Tauros (Celtic) Bull God
Kernunnos (Celtic) Wild Nature, Sky God, Storms, the Hunt, the Dead, etc.
*Matrona (Celtic) Great Mother, Earth Goddess, Nature, Life
Theutates (Celtic) Wisdom?
Celtic Gods – Welsh/British
————————————————————————————————-
Alator (British) War God?
Andarta (British)Bear Goddess
Arawn (British) Lord of Anwyn. King of the Dead.
Arecurius (British)
Arionrod (British) “Silverwheel” The Moon
Artorios (British) Bear Goddess
Barrex (British)
Belatucadros (British – Selgovae) “Bright Beautiful One” War God?
Belinus (British) Bel, Belenos. Sun
Borvo (British) Bormo, Bormannos. Thermal Springs
Braciaca (British) War God.
Brigantia (British – Brigantii) Brigit. Tutalary Goddess. Life, Knowledge,
Wisdom, Home, Hearth
Bron/Bran (British)
Camulos (British – Belgic) War God
Cernenus (British – Cornavii)
Cernunnos (British) “Horned One” Horned God. Lord of the Animals or of all
living things. War God. Ruler of the Underworld. Wild Nature,
“Foundation of the World”
Horned god w/a bag of Grain
Cimialcinnus (British)Roads, Paths
Cocidius (British – Brigantes) War God; Wild Nature.
Condatis (Brtish) War God
Contrebus (British)
Coriotiacus (British – Trinovantes)
Damona (British)Divine Cow Goddess
*Donnos (British)”The Brown or Dark One”. Lord of the Dead. “Dis Pater”
Dylan (British) Waves
Emrys (British – Demetae) “Light” Dawn, the Wind
Epona (British – Epidii) “Great Mare” Horses
Esus (British) Aesus. Nature, Patron of Shepherds. Warrior. Ruler of the
Underworld.
*Gobbanos (British) Smith
Gofannon (British) Smith, Fire, the Forge
Grannos Sun, Healing
Gwynn ap Nudd. (British)(Cernunnos Aspect) Guardian of the Dead. King of the
Otherworld. Wild Huntsman. Chief of Tylweth Teg (Welsh Faeries) and
Ellyllon (elves)
Ialonus (British)
Latis (British)
Lenumius (British – Otadinii)
Lenus (British) War God. Goose God.
Leucetius (British) “The Shining One” or “Lighting” War God.
Lugus (British)”Shining One.” King of the Gods. Inventor of Arts, Skills,
War and Healing.
Lyr (British) The Sea (Tri God Aspect)
Magusanis (British)
Mapanos (British) “The Divine Child”
Matrona (British) “The Divine Mother”
Mongons (British) “The Great Hunter”
Morgan Mwynoaur (British) Sea. Shapechanger & Mage.
Mullo (British) Mules
Nantosuelta (British) Nantosvelta. Consort of Sucellus
Nemetius (British – Troveri) War God. Guardian of the Sacred Groves.
Nemetona (British – Nemetes / Troveri) Godddess of the Sacred Groves. War
goddess?
Nodens (British) Nudd/Ludd “Cloudmaker”, “Silver handed”. (Tri God Aspect)
King of the Tuatha. War. The Sea. [Maimed King] Ocellos (British – Silures)
Ogmios (British) Champion of the Gods. Old Bald Guy, Lion’s Skin Club & Bow.
Great Strength, Poetry and eloquance. Guide of the dead.
Ratis (British) Goddess of Luck
Rhiannon (British)
Rigonemeta (British) Rigonometis. God of the Sacred Grove. War God. (Nemetius?)
Rudiobus (British) Horse God, Horsemanship
Saitada (British)
Secullos (British) “Good Striker”. Teutates. Storms? A river god. The God
with the Mallot, and Bowl of Abundance. God of the Underworld.
Setloceniua (British)
Silvanus (British) Guardian of the forests and Patron of Agriculture
Sirona (British) Healing Goddess
Sulis (British – [Bath]) Sul. Minerva Warm Springs
Taranos (British) Taranis; Turannos. “Thunderer” Lightning, Thunder, Storms.
Ruler of the Underworld. Has a Big Wheel.
Teutates (British) Toutatis; Totatis. “God of the People.” ie, Secullos. War
God of Brigantes. May be same as Cernunnos.
Ursula of the Silver Host (British) Swanmaiden
Vellaunus (British) War God?
Vitiris (British – Selgovae) War God?
Celtic Gods – Gallic
————————————————————————————————-
Alator (Gaulic) War God?
Andarta (Gaulic)Bear Goddess
Arawn (Gaulic) Lord of Anwyn. King of the Dead.
Arecurius (Gaulic)
Arionrod (Gaulic) “Silverwheel” The Moon
Artorios (Gaulic) Bear Goddess
Barrex (Gaulic)
Belatucadros (Gaulic – Selgovae) “Bright Beautiful One” War God?
Belinus (Gaulic) Bel, Belenos. Sun
Borvo (Gaulic) Bormo, Bormannos. Thermal Springs
Braciaca (Gaulic) War God.
Brigantia (Gaulic – Brigantii) Brigit. Tutalary Goddess. Life, Knowledge,
Wisdom, Home, Hearth
Bron/Bran (Gaulic)
Camulos (Gaulic – Belgic) War God
Cernenus (Gaulic – Cornavii)
Cernunnos (Gaulic) “Horned One” Horned God. Lord of the Animals or of all
living things. War God. Ruler of the Underworld. Wild Nature,
“Foundation of the World”
Horned god w/a bag of Grain
Cimialcinnus (Gaulic)Roads, Paths
Cocidius (Gaulic – Brigantes) War God; Wild Nature.
Condatis (Brtish) War God
Contrebus (Gaulic)
Coriotiacus (Gaulic – Trinovantes)
Damona (Gaulic)Divine Cow Goddess
*Donnos (Gaulic)”The Brown or Dark One”. Lord of the Dead. “Dis Pater”
Dylan (Gaulic) Waves
Emrys (Gaulic – Demetae) “Light” Dawn, the Wind
Epona (Gaulic – Epidii) “Great Mare” Horses
Esus (Gaulic) Aesus. Nature, Patron of Shepherds. Warrior. Ruler of the
Underworld.
*Gobbanos (Gaulic) Smith
Gofannon (Gaulic) Smith, Fire, the Forge
Grannos Sun, Healing
Gwynn ap Nudd. (Gaulic)(Cernunnos Aspect) Guardian of the Dead. King of the
Otherworld. Wild Huntsman. Chief of Tylweth Teg (Welsh Faeries) and
Ellyllon (elves)
Ialonus (Gaulic)
Latis (Gaulic)
Lenumius (Gaulic – Otadinii)
Lenus (Gaulic) War God. Goose God.
Leucetius (Gaulic) “The Shining One” or “Lighting” War God.
Lugus (Gaulic)”Shining One.” King of the Gods. Inventor of Arts, Skills,
War and Healing.
Lyr (Gaulic) The Sea (Tri God Aspect)
Magusanis (Gaulic)
Mapanos (Gaulic) “The Divine Child”
Matrona (Gaulic) “The Divine Mother”
Mongons (Gaulic) “The Great Hunter”
Morgan Mwynoaur (Gaulic) Sea. Shapechanger & Mage.
Mullo (Gaulic) Mules
Nantosuelta (Gaulic) Nantosvelta. Consort of Sucellus
Nemetius (Gaulic – Troveri) War God. Guardian of the Sacred Groves.
Nemetona (Gaulic – Nemetes / Troveri) Godddess of the Sacred Groves. War
goddess?
Nodens (Gaulic) Nudd/Ludd “Cloudmaker”, “Silver handed”. (Tri God Aspect)
King of the Tuatha. War. The Sea. [Maimed King] Ocellos (Gaulic – Silures)
Ogmios (Gaulic) Champion of the Gods. Old Bald Guy, Lion’s Skin Club & Bow.
Great Strength, Poetry and eloquance. Guide of the dead.
Olloudius (Gaulic – Narbonenses) War God
Ratis (Gaulic) Goddess of Luck
Rhiannon (Gaulic)
Rigisaumus (Gaulic) War God
Rigonemeta (Gaulic) Rigonometis. God of the Sacred Grove. War God. (Nemetius?)
Rudiobus (Gaulic) Horse God, Horsemanship
Saitada (Gaulic)
Secullos (Gaulic) “Good Striker”. Teutates. Storms? A river god. The God
with the Mallot, and Bowl of Abundance. God of the Underworld.
Segomo (Gaulic) War God
Setloceniua (Gaulic)
Silvanus (Gaulic)Guardian of the forests and Patron of Agriculture
Sirona (Gaulic)Healing Goddess
Sulis (Gaulic – [Bath]) Sul. Minerva Warm Springs
Taranos (Gaulic) Taranis; Turannos. “Thunderer” Lightning, Thunder, Storms.
Ruler of the Underworld. Has a Big Wheel.
Teutates (Gaulic) Toutatis; Totatis. “God of the People.” ie, Secullos. War
God of Brigantes. May be same as Cernunnos.
Vellaunus (Gaulic) War God?
Vitiris (Gaulic – Selgovae) War God?

Sep 23

Monmouth’s Kings of Britain

Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Kings of Britain

 These are semi-legendary kings of whom some can be identified with historical personalities.

Name

Reign

Family

Spouse
Brutus 23 yrs
Locrinus 10 yrs Son of Brutus Gwendolen
Gwendolen 15 yrs Widow of Locrinus
Maddan 40 yrs Son of L + G
Mempricius 20 yrs Son of Mempricius
Ebraucus 39 yrs Son of Maddan 20 wives
Brutus Greenshield 12 yrs Son of Ebraucus
Leil 25 years Son of Brutus G
Rud Hud Hudibras 39 yrs Son of Leil
Bladud 20 yrs Son of RHH
Leir (King Lear) 60 yrs Son of Bladud
Cordelia 5 yrs Daughter of Leir
Marganus I + Cunedagius 2 yrs jointly then C 33 yrs Sons of Goneril + Regan
Rivallo Son of Cunedagius
Gurgustius Son of Rivallo
Sisillius I
Jago Nephew of G
Kimarcus Son of Sisillius I
Gorboduc Judon

Ferrex + Porrex

Disputed succession

Sons of Gorboduc
Civil war, 5 unnamed kings
Dunvallo Molmutius 40 yrs Son of Cloten, King of Cornwall
Belinus Fought bro, Brennius Son of DM
Gurguit Barbtruc Son of Belinus
Guithelin Marcia
Marcia Widow of Guithelin
Sisillius II Son of G + M
Kinarius Son of S II
Danius Bro of Kinarius
Morvidus Illeg son of Danius
Gorbonianus Eldest son of M
Archgallo Bro of Gorbonianus
Elidurus 5 yrs Bro of Archgallo
Archgallo 10 yrs Crown restored by E
Elidurus Dep by 2 youngest bros
Ingenius + Peredurus 7 yrs I died, P alone Sons of Morvidus
Elidurus Restored
? Son of Gorbonianus
Marganus II Son of Archgallo
Enniaunus 6 yrs dep Bro of M II
Idvallo Son of Ingenius
Runo Son of Peredurus
Gerennus Son of Elidurus
Catellus Son of Gerennus
Millus
Porrex
Cherin
Fulgenius Son of Cherin
Edadus Bro of Fulgenius
Andragius Bro of Edadus
Urianus Son of Andragius
Eliud
Cledaucus
Clotenus
Gurgintius
Merianus
Bledudo
Cap
Oenus
Sisillius III
Beldgabred
Archmail Bro of Beldgabred
Eldol
Redon
Redechius
Samuil
Penessil
Pir
Capoir
Digueillis Son of Capoir
Heli 40 yrs Son of D
Lud Son of Heli
Cassivelaunu(s) (hist Caswallon) C 55 BC Bro of Lud
Tenvantius (hist Tasciovanus) Son of Lud
Cymbeline (hist Cunobelinus) 10 yrs + Son of Tenvantius
Guiderius Son of Cymbeline
Arviragus Bro of G
Marius Son of A
Coilus Son of M
Lucius – AD 156 Son of Coilus

Interregnum

C 150 yrs
Asclepiodotus Elected by the people Duke of Cornwall
Coel ‘Old King Cole’ (hist Coel Hen Godhebog) Killed A Duke of Kaecolim (Colchester)
Constantius Equated with Roman Emperor C I Helen, daughter of Coel
Constantine I RE C the Great Son of Constantius
Octavius Usurper Duke of the Gewissei
Trahern Bro of Coel
Octavius Regained throne
Maximianus Son of Ioelinus, son of Coel Dau of Octavius
Gracianus Freedman, seized power when M died
Constantine II Invited to be king Bro of Aldroenus king of Brittany
Constans Son of C II
Vortigern (hist) Usurped
Vortimer Son of Vortigern
Vortigern Restored
Aurelius Ambrosius Dep V Son of C II
Uther Pendragon Bro of AA
Arthur D 542 Son of Uther
Constantine III A’s cousin; Son of Cador, Duke of Cornwall
Aurelius Conanus 3 yrs Nephew of C III
Vortiporius
Malgo (hist K Maelgwn Gwynedd) Died c 550
Keredic
3 unnamed kings
Cadvan (hist Cadfan ab Iago of Gwynedd) 616-c25
Cadwallo (hist Cadwallon) C 625-33

Geoffrey says 48 yrs

 Son of Cadvan
Cadwallader (hist Cadwaladr Fendigaid) 654-64 Son of Cadwallon

Sep 23

Claudius

Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus

(10 BC – 54 AD)

Titles: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul V, Imperator XXVII, Tribuniciae Potestatis XIV, Pater Patriae

Wives:
Plautia Urgulanilla
Aelia Paetina (28AD)
Valeria Messalina (38AD)
Julia Agrippina (49AD
Children:
Claudius Drusus – Daughter
Claudia – Daughter
Antonia – Daughter
Octavia – Daughter
Britannicus – Son

Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus was born Lugunum in 10 BC, the youngest son of Nero Drusus, brother of Tiberius. He was a strange child and prone to constant illness, not only of the body, but also the mind. Generally, it is believed that he was somewhat retarded and suffered from bouts of irrational behaviour and depression. He also had physical ailments that included a severe stutter and a stoop. He had a nervous tic that caused many at meetings he chaired to find it difficult to contain their laughter at his antics. Furthermore, he was known to be a heavy drinker, often spending several days incapable and incoherent. Even so, he was tall and well-built which gave him a commanding presence to those around him.

He was something of a reject in the family but as he had been born into a family of influence, it was undecided what to do with him. Under Tiberius, he did not hold any official post, and he was only awarded the public distinction of augurate. The only appointment he gained was a consulship given to him by his nephew Gaius when he became emperor.

Claudius succeeded to the throne when Gaius was murdered, Assassination was commonplace when an emperor became disliked by his own people. On witnessing the murder, Claudius believed that he was the next to die, and so he ran to the palace and hid behind curtains in one of the apartments. When he was discovered by a guardsman, he pleaded for his life, promising anything if they spared him. The soldiers thought this was hilarious, as they had not come to kill him, but to proclaim him the new emperor.

The fact that Claudius had the throne did not please the Senate, and the Senators discussed their possible options, as having a dimwit controlling the Roman Empire was not the best idea if the empire was to flourish. The praetorian guard was a powerful institution and easily wielded influence over the government. There was always the fear that anyone who stood against a strong institution would soon find themselves in an early grave. To appease the praetorians, the senate granted Claudius all the imperial powers.

Claudius may not have been the brightest of emperors, but even he knew how to buy the favour of those in authority. He granted the praetorian guard a large gift after he was made emperor, thus ensuring their continued support. Claudius made no secret of all this, and even had gold and silver coins minted to mark that pronounced that is was the guard that had instilled him onto the throne.

In 42 AD, Claudius survived an attempted coup by the governor of the Upper Illyricum, Marcus Furius Camillus Scribonianus. Although the revolt was quelled in the early stages, Claudius realised that the high authorities that he had influenced and controlled had been infiltrated by others bent on his destruction. He instigated a series of measures to increase security and intelligence. This was a wise move, as during the remaining twelve years of his reign as emperor, none of the six further coups succeeded. During this time, no less than 35 senators and up to 300 knights were killed. This did not fare well with the senate, as Claudius was seen as all powerful and beyond any control. He had total autonomy and used his powers to the maximum in the fashion of a dictator, even to the point of reviving the long dead office of censorship, with himself as the highest officer from 47-48 AD.

It was the invasion of Britain in 43 AD that diverted attention from the problems in Rome. He appointed Aulus Plautius to carry out the invasion. In the period from 43-47 AD, southern and central England was overrun by the Roman invaders who renamed the island Britannia.

For the decisive capture of the English capital of Camulodunum, Claudius ordered that the Roman legions were not to enter the town until he arrived, and it was he who was to be the first to set foot in the capital.

Although Claudius may have been retarded to a certain degree, he showed signs of cunning and wisdom in many ways. He introduced systems whereby enlisted soldiers could rise rapidly through the ranks. Roman auxiliary soldiers who retired after 25 years service were awarded bronze diplomas to give them total Roman citizenship, so recognising the service they had given to the Roman military. This made sure they were catered for in their retirement by making sure they had a decent pension, a house and land. There are indications that this system was already in place, but Claudius widened the scope of it so that more soldiers benefited from the advantages.

He relaxed the conditions for entry into the senate by abolishing the rule that potential senators had to be Italian by birth to qualify. This was met with scorn by the Italian nobility as they saw it as a method of diluting their grip on power. This, along with accusations of giving preference to foreigners in Roman matters, made him some bitter enemies.

The Greeks and the Jews of Alexandria had been in a bloody dispute for many years, and each sent a delegation to Claudius to see if he could bring about a settlement to the matter. Claudius response was impartial to say the least.

As for the question which party was responsible for the riots and feud (or rather, if the truth be told, the war) with the Jews. I was unwilling to make a strict inquiry, though guarding within me a store of immutable indignation against whichever party renews the conflict; and I tell you once and for all that unless you put a stop to this ruinous and obstinate enmity against each other, I shall be driven to show what a benevolent princeps can be when turned to righteous indignation.

His reforms spread far and wide and included the judicial system of the Roman Empire. Up till now, only the wealthy could afford lawyers, and so cases were often decided by whoever had the most expensive, and therefore, the most knowledgeable legal team. Claudius brought in methods to speed up the legal processes and made legal representation more widely available for the less affluent members of society.

He was married four times. The first to Plautia Urgulanilla, an Etruscan. He divorced her and married Aelia Paetina, which was a short marriage. His third wife was Valeria Messalina, whom he married when she was just 14, the minimum Roman age for a legal marriage. He was by now 49 years old. The fourth wife (who was probably his murderer) was 34 when he married her 10 years later.

Claudius died in October 54 AD at the age of 64. Like so many emperors before, Claudius did not die a natural death, the most accepted cause being a meal of poisoned mushrooms given to him by Julia Agrippina, his fourth wife. The main reason was probably because she tired of his style of leadership and wanted him to be replaced by here son, Nero, which came about after the death of Claudius.

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