Brigantes Nation

Jan 24

Briefing – Roman Interaction with Galicia and the Iberian Peninsula

By George in Archaeology, Briefing, Brigantia Espania

Hut circles at Castro de Santa Trega

Contents

1 Roman Interaction with Galicia and the Iberian Peninsula
2 Key Roman Sites and Influence in Galicia
3 Conclusion: Roman Galicia and its Lasting Legacy

Roman Interaction with Galicia and the Iberian Peninsula

Early Roman Interest and Expansion (218 BCE – 133 BCE):

Roman Invasion of Hispania: The Romans’ first significant incursions into the Iberian Peninsula began in 218 BCE during the Second Punic War, when Hannibal Barca, the Carthaginian general, crossed the Alps and threatened Rome. This prompted Roman intervention to ensure control of their western Mediterranean territories.
Roman Campaigns in Iberia: The Romans initially struggled to fully subdue the various Iberian tribes, which were divided into Celtic, Iberian, and other regional groups. The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula took over a century, culminating in the defeat of the Celtiberians by 133 BCE.
During this period, Galicia, located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, was inhabited by various Celtic tribes, including the Gallaeci and Astures, who had a distinct Celtic culture. Despite their resistance to Roman rule, the Gallaeci were eventually absorbed into Roman control.

The Romanization of Galicia (Late 1st Century BCE – Early 1st Century CE):

Roman Military and Settlements: As the Roman Empire expanded its control over the Iberian Peninsula, Galicia was gradually brought into the fold. Roman military infrastructure was built across the region, with Roman roads, fortified settlements, and towns established. The city of Bracara Augusta (modern Braga) in the Gallaecia region became the administrative centre of Roman governance in the area.
Roman Provincial Organization: By the early 1st century CE, the Romans formally divided the Iberian Peninsula into several provinces, and Galicia became part of the Lusitania province (which included much of modern Portugal) and Tarraconensis, with Bracara Augusta as a key city. The Romans were particularly interested in Galicia for its strategic location, mineral wealth, and access to the Atlantic.
Roman Influence: While the Romans initially encountered resistance, over time they established Roman towns, temples, and fortifications in the region. They also introduced Roman infrastructure, including aqueducts, roads, and public buildings.

The Conquest of the Gallaeci and Resistance (1st Century CE):

Resistance to Roman Rule: The Gallaeci, the Celtic tribes of Galicia, resisted Roman rule fiercely. Roman commanders such as Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus launched military campaigns to subdue the Gallaeci and their northern neighbours in the Asturias region.
The Battle of the Douro (137 BCE): In 137 BCE, the Gallaeci successfully resisted a Roman invasion at the Battle of the Douro. This early resistance, while ultimately unsuccessful, delayed Roman occupation in the region for several decades.
Roman Military Presence: By 19 BCE, the Romans, under the leadership of Emperor Augustus, had effectively crushed the Gallaeci’s main military resistance. Roman forces continued to build military roads, establishing a network of military posts and fortifications that ensured control over Galicia.

Romanized Galicia (1st – 3rd Century CE):

Roman Influence: After the defeat of the Gallaeci, Romanization of the region accelerated. The Romans introduced their laws, culture, and economic systems. Roman coins were minted in Bracara Augusta, and the town became the hub of Roman influence in the region.
Cultural Integration: The Gallaeci gradually adopted Roman customs, including Roman architecture and language. However, their Celtic identity remained strong, and they maintained many of their traditional practices alongside Roman ways. It is clear that Galician culture during this period was a blend of Celtic and Roman influences.
Christianity: By the 3rd century CE, early Christianity began to spread in Galicia, as it did in many other parts of the Roman Empire. Christian communities began to form in urban centres like Bracara Augusta.

The Decline of Roman Power and the Fall of Galicia (4th – 5th Century CE):

Late Roman Empire: By the 4th century CE, the Roman Empire was in decline, facing external invasions and internal instability. The Visigoths began to move into the Iberian Peninsula, eventually leading to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE.
Galicia’s Transition: As the Roman Empire crumbled, the Visigoths took control of the Iberian Peninsula. Galicia fell under the rule of the Visigothic Kingdom, and the region began a period of transition from Roman rule to early medieval governance.

Key Roman Sites and Influence in Galicia

Bracara Augusta: This city was the capital of Roman Gallaecia and remains one of the most significant Roman towns in the region. The site includes Roman temples, forum, and public buildings, many of which are still visible today.
Aquis Querquennis: A Roman fort located in the Galician mountains, Aquis Querquennis is significant for its well-preserved remains. The site provides insight into Roman military architecture and the Roman presence in the northernmost reaches of the Empire.
Roman Roads: The Roman road network that passed through Galicia connected Bracara Augusta with other parts of the Empire. These roads were vital for both military control and trade, linking Galicia with Lusitania (modern-day Portugal) and the rest of Roman Spain.

Conclusion: Roman Galicia and its Lasting Legacy

The Romans had a profound impact on Galicia, introducing urbanization, Roman architecture, and economic systems that shaped the region for centuries. Despite initial resistance, the Gallaeci were integrated into the Roman world, and their culture adapted, though their Celtic identity remained strong. The Roman capital of Bracara Augusta and key sites like Aquis Querquennis stand as lasting reminders of the Roman presence in Galicia. The Roman period in Galicia laid the groundwork for the region’s subsequent history and cultural development.

Jan 24

Biefing – The Myth of Breogán and the Tower of Heracles

By George in Breogans, Briefing, Brigantia Espania, Iron Age, Myth and Legend, Reports, Research, Tower

Contents

1 The Myth of Breogán: A Founding Legend of Galicia
2 The Legacy of Breogán in Modern Galicia:
3 Conclusion: Breogán’s Significance in Historical and Mythological Contexts

The Myth of Breogán: A Founding Legend of Galicia

Breogán in Celtic Mythology:

Breogán is a legendary figure in Galician mythology and is regarded as the founder of the Galician people. The myth of Breogán is part of the ancient Celtic tradition, and while the details of his story vary across sources, he is universally seen as a key figure in the mythological ancestry of the Galicians.

According to legend, Breogán was a great warrior and a leader of the Celtic tribes in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, the area that later became known as Galicia. He is often associated with the construction of monumental structures, such as towers, which are said to have served as both symbolic landmarks and practical means of marking territory and demonstrating power.

The Tower of Hercules:

One of the most famous aspects of the Breogán myth is the Tower of Hercules, a tower or fortress from which he is said to have surveyed the land. According to one of the key sources, the Lebor Gabála Érenn (The Book of Invasions), the Tower of Hercules was located on the Galician coast, in the area near A Coruña—a region strongly linked to Celtic and Roman history.

In the Lebor Gabála Érenn, Breogán’s tower plays a significant role in the myth of the Milesians—the people who are said to have migrated from Iberia to Ireland. The myth recounts that the Milesians, led by Íth (Breogán’s grandson), looked across the sea from the tower and saw the land of Ireland. Íth’s journey to Ireland was the first step in the Milesian invasion, and it ultimately led to the establishment of Celtic rule in Ireland. The story emphasizes the link between Galicia and Ireland, and Breogán is regarded as the mythological ancestor of the Irish Celtic tribes.

Breogán as a Symbol of Celtic Identity:

Breogán’s myth encapsulates many of the themes of Celtic identity—the importance of ancestral heritage, the construction of sacred sites, and the connection between the land and its people. The legend of Breogán and the Tower of Hercules is a reflection of the Celtic worldview, where monumental structures were not just physical creations but were also infused with spiritual significance.

The Celtic tradition often linked leadership, ancestral reverence, and the land itself. In this way, Breogán can be seen as a symbol of the Galician people’s connection to their land and their cultural roots. The myth reinforces the idea that Galicia’s Celtic heritage is deeply tied to its geography, and the tower, as a symbol of power and vision, is a manifestation of the leader’s connection to both the physical and spiritual realms.

The Breogán Myth in the Context of Galicia and the Brigantes:

The myth of Breogán holds particular significance in the study of the Galicians and their potential connections with the Brigantes of Britain. The Brigantes, a powerful Celtic tribe in northern Britain, shared many cultural and ritual practices with the Gallaeci of Galicia, including their reverence for ancestral figures and their connection to sacred landmarks.

The Tower of Hercules, as described in the myth, may not only symbolize the power of Galicia’s Celtic rulers but also represent the broader Celtic practice of creating ritual spaces that connected the people to their ancestors, gods, and land. In this way, the myth offers insight into the shared cultural framework between the Galicians and the Brigantes—two groups that are believed to have had cultural, spiritual, and possibly even trade connections across the Celtic world.

The Legacy of Breogán in Modern Galicia:

Today, the legend of Breogán continues to hold deep cultural and historical significance in Galicia. The Tower of Heracles in A Coruña is often seen as a modern symbol of the Breogán myth, as it marks the ancient connection between the people of Galicia and their mythological past.

The myth also continues to inspire a sense of pride and identity in the region, reflecting the Galician people’s connection to their Celtic roots. Breogán is celebrated not only as a legendary figure but as a symbol of strength, leadership, and the eternal bond between the people and their land. The myth of Breogán remains an integral part of Galician heritage, providing a cultural touchstone that links the Celtic past to the present day.

Conclusion: Breogán’s Significance in Historical and Mythological Contexts

The myth of Breogán is central to the Galician identity and offers fascinating insights into the cultural practices of the ancient Celtic tribes of Galicia. It highlights themes of ancestral reverence, sacred architecture, and the connection to the land, all of which are crucial to understanding the broader Celtic worldview. As a key figure in Galician mythology, Breogán provides a rich link between Galicia and the Brigantes, offering a glimpse into the shared history and cultural exchange between these Celtic peoples. The Tower of Heracles, as a symbol of this enduring legacy, makes Galicia a pivotal region for investigations into Celtic culture, mythology, and their connections to other Celtic tribes across Europe.

Jan 23

Galicia

By George in Briefing, Brigantia Espania, Spain

A Coruna Bay

Contents

0.1 Exploring Ancient Galicia: A Key to Understanding the Brigantes and the Tower of Heracles
- 0.1.1 Introduction to Ancient Galicia:

1 Get Directions

Exploring Ancient Galicia: A Key to Understanding the Brigantes and the Tower of Heracles

Introduction to Ancient Galicia:

The region of Galicia, located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, has a history that stretches back to prehistoric times. Known for its Celtic roots, rolling hills, rugged coastlines, and rich folklore, Galicia is a place steeped in ancient traditions and mystery. Over the centuries, Galicia has played a significant role in the cultural and historical development of the Iberian Peninsula, particularly through its Celtic heritage and the connection to broader European Celtic culture.

The modern region of Galicia includes the autonomous community of Galicia in Spain, encompassing the provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense, and Pontevedra. Its history, however, is much broader, and its cultural heritage reaches back to the ancient Gallaeci, the Celtic tribes that inhabited this area before Roman conquest.

Celtic Galicia and the Brigantes:

The Gallaeci were one of the major Celtic groups that lived in north-western Iberia. They were known for their strong tribal identity, much like the Brigantes in Britain, who lived in what is now northern England and southern Scotland. The Brigantes were one of the largest and most powerful tribes in the British Isles, and the cultural and social structures they developed bear striking resemblances to those of the Gallaeci in Galicia.

Similarities in Social Structure: Both the Gallaeci and the Brigantes shared a similar tribal hierarchy, with chieftains and warrior elites playing prominent roles. The power of these tribes was rooted in the control of fertile lands, trade routes, and their relationships with neighbouring tribes.
Possible Connections: Evidence suggests there were shared cultural practices between the Brigantes and the Gallaeci, especially in terms of rituals, religion, and social organization. The Celtic identity of both regions likely created common bonds, including the reverence for ancestral worship, sacred places, and the use of hillforts.

The Tower of Heracles: A Symbolic Link Between Galicia and the Brigantes:

One of the most fascinating connections between Galicia and the Brigantes lies in the legend of the Tower of Heracles, also known as the Hercules Tower. This iconic landmark is located in A Coruña, Galicia’s coastal capital. The Tower of Heracles is an ancient Roman lighthouse, originally built in the 1st century CE, but its significance predates Roman construction.

Mythical and Historical Significance: According to ancient Greek and Roman sources, the Tower of Heracles was constructed in the place where Heracles (Hercules), the hero of Greek mythology, is said to have placed the Pillars of Hercules to mark the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. This location has been a sacred site for ancient cultures for thousands of years, representing the threshold between the known and unknown worlds.
Brigantes Connection: The connection to the Brigantes comes into focus when we consider the shared mythological traditions across Celtic and Mediterranean cultures. The Brigantes were a tribe that revered ancient deities and often constructed monumental structures, such as hillforts and ritual spaces, to honour their gods and ancestors. The Tower of Heracles, situated at a strategic point along the Galician coast, could very well have held similar symbolic significance for the Gallaeci as it did for the Brigantes and their own sacred places.

Why Galicia is a Key Target Area for Investigations:

Shared Cultural and Mythological Ties: The connection between the Brigantes and the Gallaeci strengthens the case for focusing on Galicia as a target area for archaeological investigations. By studying the ancient Galician landscape, including its monuments, hillforts, and sacred sites, we can gain deeper insight into the shared practices and beliefs that may have connected the Brigantes to their counterparts in the Iberian Peninsula.
Strategic Importance: The Tower of Heracles and its surrounding sites represent a significant cultural and geographical nexus, potentially offering a glimpse into the movement of peoples and ideas between the Celtic tribes of Britain and Iberia. Its strategic location also serves as a potential marker for understanding how the Brigantes and the Gallaeci may have interacted or exchanged knowledge, goods, and cultural symbols.
Archaeological Potential: As one of the few areas in Europe where Celtic and Roman influences intersect, Galicia holds immense potential for revealing new information about ancient tribal interactions. The archaeological sites in Galicia, including the Brigantian territory, the Tower of Heracles, and other Celtic remains, present a rich opportunity to uncover material culture, burial practices, ritual objects, and urban settlements.

Conclusion: Galicia as a Key to Understanding the Brigantes:

The ancient region of Galicia and its connection to the Brigantes presents a unique opportunity to explore the cultural, mythological, and historical ties that may have united the Celtic peoples of northern Britain and Iberia. The Tower of Heracles, as both a symbolic and practical landmark, highlights the shared heritage and sacred significance that these two peoples may have held in common. As we move forward with our investigations, Galicia emerges as a critical region to deepen our understanding of the Brigantes and their place in the wider context of Celtic Europe.

Briefing – Galicia’s Political History and Separatist Sentiment

Galicia’s Celtic origins have long played a significant role in shaping the region’s cultural and political identity. Historically, Galicia was inhabited by Celtic tribes, and this heritage is still celebrated today in Galician culture, language, and folklore.

Briefing – Roman Interaction with Galicia and the Iberian Peninsula

Roman Invasion of Hispania: The Romans’ first significant incursions into the Iberian Peninsula began in 218 BCE during the Second Punic War, when Hannibal Barca, the Carthaginian general, crossed the Alps and threatened Rome. This prompted Roman intervention to ensure control of their western Mediterranean territories.

Biefing – The Myth of Breogán and the Tower of Heracles

Breogán is a legendary figure in Galician mythology and is regarded as the founder of the Galician people. The myth of Breogán is part of the ancient Celtic tradition, and while the details of his story vary across sources, he is universally seen as a key figure in the mythological ancestry of the Galicians.

Briefing – Design of Galician Hillforts

Hillforts, or castros, are some of the most iconic archaeological features of Galicia and provide valuable insights into the region's Celtic past. These ancient settlements, typically constructed on hilltops or elevated locations, were used for defensive and residential purposes by the Gallaeci and other Celtic groups in northwest Spain.

Briefing – Geography and Geology of Galicia

The region of Galicia, located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, is a land defined by rugged coastlines, mountainous terrain, and fertile valleys. Galicia’s geography and geology have played a fundamental role in shaping both its natural environment and the ways in which ancient civilizations, such as the Gallaeci (the Celtic tribes of Galicia),...

Jan 23

Guide – The Roman Period in the British Isles

By George in Anglo-saxon, Archaeology, Guide, Iron Age, Norman, Period, Regional Surveys, Reports, Roman

Emperor Augustus dressed as a deity, parading through ancient Rome

The Roman Period in the British Isles (43 CE – 410 CE)

Contents

0.1 Roman Conquest and Expansion (43 CE – 100 CE):
0.2 The Roman Invasion and the Brigantes (55 BCE – 43 CE):
0.3 Boudica’s Rebellion and the Brigantes’ Response (60-61 CE):
0.4 The Brigantes and Cartimandua’s Role:
0.5 Romanization and Cultural Impact:
0.6 Military Presence and Hadrian’s Wall (100 CE – 410 CE):
0.7 The Brigantes and the Roman Conquest:
0.8 Agricola and the Roman Advance North (77 CE – 84 CE):
0.9 The Brigantes Under Roman Rule:
0.10 Hadrian’s Wall and Roman Control (122 CE onwards):
0.11 The Antonine Wall and Further Roman Expansion (142 CE – 160 CE):
0.12 Decline and Withdrawal (Late 4th Century – 410 CE):

1 Post-Roman Britain and the Anglo-Saxon Period (5th Century – 8th Century)
2 The Norman Conquest (1066 CE)
3 The Legacy of the Brigantes:
4 Conclusion

Roman Conquest and Expansion (43 CE – 100 CE):

The Roman Invasion and the Brigantes (55 BCE – 43 CE):

Julius Caesar made the first significant Roman attempt to conquer Britannia in 55 BCE during his campaign in Gaul. He landed on the shores of south-eastern Britain, but his invasions were brief and mostly for reconnaissance. Despite some skirmishes, there was no lasting conquest at this stage.
However, the real Romanization of Britain began under the leadership of Emperor Claudius, who launched a full-scale invasion in 43 CE. This marked the beginning of Roman control over Britannia.

Boudica’s Rebellion and the Brigantes’ Response (60-61 CE):

While the Brigantes had been Roman allies, the infamous Boudica led a powerful uprising in 60 CE, aimed at reclaiming her tribe’s independence from Roman control. Boudica, the queen of the Iceni, was brutally treated by the Romans, and she rallied other tribes, including some within the Brigantes’ territory, to revolt.
Boudica’s army famously destroyed Camulodunum (Colchester), London, and Verulamium (St Albans), causing widespread destruction. Though the Romans eventually quelled the rebellion, the uprising demonstrated the ongoing tension between Roman rule and local tribes.
The Brigantes did not directly participate in Boudica’s rebellion but were impacted by the violence and unrest. This rebellion led to a more rigorous Roman presence in the north, which in turn, influenced the Brigantes’ eventual submission to Roman rule.

The Brigantes and Cartimandua’s Role:

Cartimandua, Queen of the Brigantes, played a pivotal role early in the Roman conquest. When Roman legions arrived in northern Britain, the Brigantes, with their capital at Isurium (modern Aldborough), initially allied with the Romans. Cartimandua’s support was crucial in the early stages of Roman expansion.
Isurium became the administrative centre of Roman authority in the Brigantian territory, acting as a base for Roman military presence and trade. This alliance allowed the Brigantes some degree of autonomy, as Cartimandua maintained control over her tribe, albeit under Roman supervision.

Romanization and Cultural Impact:

The Province of Britannia: After the initial conquest, the Romans divided Britannia into several administrative areas, which they governed with a series of forts, roads, and towns. The region quickly became an integral part of the Roman world, benefiting from trade and Roman cultural influences.
Roman Towns and Cities: The Romans introduced urbanization to Britain, with the construction of Roman towns such as Colchester, Londinium (London), Verulamium (St Albans), and Bath. These cities featured Roman-style baths, temples, forums, and amphitheaters.
Infrastructure: One of the most significant impacts of Roman rule in Britain was the creation of an extensive network of roads, which connected major towns and military forts across the province. These roads facilitated trade, communication, and military movement.
Religion: Roman paganism influenced the religious landscape in Britain, with many of the native Celtic beliefs being replaced by Roman gods. Later, the spread of Christianity began in Britain during the Roman period, although it was initially met with resistance.

Military Presence and Hadrian’s Wall (100 CE – 410 CE):

Roman Military Presence: To control the Celtic tribes in the northern regions, the Romans established forts and garrisons, particularly in the northern borderlands. Hadrian’s Wall, built around 122 CE, marked the Roman Empire’s northernmost frontier in Britain. It was both a military defence and a symbolic boundary separating Roman Britain from the unconquered tribes of present-day Scotland.
Celtic Resistance and Rebellions: Throughout the Roman occupation, there were periodic uprisings from the local Celtic tribes, the most famous being led by Boudica, queen of the Iceni tribe in 60-61 CE. Despite these challenges, the Romans remained in control for nearly 400 years.

The Brigantes and the Roman Conquest:

The Brigantes Tribe was one of the most powerful Celtic tribes in northern Britain, and their lands spanned what is now Yorkshire, the North Midlands, and parts of Lancashire. In the context of the Roman conquest of Britain, the Brigantes were significant players. While some of the tribes in southern Britain fought the Romans fiercely, the Brigantes initially adopted a complicated stance.
Queen Cartimandua, the Brigantes’ queen during the early stages of the Roman invasion, had a

Agricola and the Roman Advance North (77 CE – 84 CE):

Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the Roman governor of Britain, pushed the Roman frontier further north after his appointment in 77 CE. He famously campaigned against the Caledonians (the Scots) and was responsible for major military victories.
Agricola’s campaign culminated in the Battle of Mons Graupius in 83 CE, where the Romans decisively defeated the Caledonian forces. This battle marked the zenith of Roman military control in Britain and allowed for the fortification of the northern frontier.
As part of his campaign, Agricola constructed Hadrian’s Wall in 122 CE, which marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire in Britain. This massive fortification stretched across the width of the island and was designed to defend Roman-controlled Britain from the northern tribes.

The Brigantes Under Roman Rule:

After the Roman military campaign in northern Britain, the Brigantes were largely subjugated and became part of the Roman province of Britannia. This meant their lands, including the Thornborough Henges, were integrated into the Roman system. While the Romans maintained control over their land, the Brigantes were allowed a degree of autonomy, though they were required to pay tribute and provide support to Roman operations.
Romanization had a profound impact on the Brigantes. Over time, many of the tribe’s traditional ways of life, including their religion, material culture, and social structures, became intertwined with Roman customs and technologies.

Hadrian’s Wall and Roman Control (122 CE onwards):

By 122 CE, the Romans had established Hadrian’s Wall as the boundary of the empire in Britannia. This fortified barrier, spanning the width of northern England, was a symbol of Roman dominance and provided both military defense and a mechanism for controlling trade and movement.
The Brigantes, now fully under Roman rule, had to adapt to the presence of Roman fortifications within their lands, including a series of Roman towns and military camps that dotted the landscape. The region’s cultural fabric began to shift significantly under Roman influence, incorporating Romanized architecture, coinage, and trade.
The Brigantes’ role within the Romanized landscape was now clear: while they still retained some local leadership, their power was now part of a broader Roman system.

The Antonine Wall and Further Roman Expansion (142 CE – 160 CE):

The Antonine Wall, built between 142 CE and 160 CE, marked a further attempt to extend the Roman frontier into Scotland. This wall ran further north than Hadrian’s Wall, but Roman control over these territories was not to last. The wall was eventually abandoned, and Hadrian’s Wall once again became the definitive Roman boundary in the region.
The Brigantes lived in a post-Roman world where the land around them was influenced by Roman military strategy, but the sense of tribal identity continued to persist, even as Roman culture became more deeply integrated into their daily lives.

Decline and Withdrawal (Late 4th Century – 410 CE):

By the early 5th century, the Roman Empire was in decline. Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain in 410 CE, largely due to pressures from internal strife and external threats to the empire. This marked the end of the Roman rule in Britain, leaving the province vulnerable to invasion by Anglo-Saxons and Picts.

Post-Roman Britain and the Anglo-Saxon Period (5th Century – 8th Century)

The Decline of the Brigantes:

After the Roman withdrawal in 410 CE, the Brigantes no longer had the protection and influence of Roman governance. During the Anglo-Saxon period, the Brigantian territories saw a shift in power as new groups such as the Angles and Saxons began to settle the region.
The Brigantes’ lands were absorbed into emerging Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, though some Celtic traditions persisted, particularly in the more remote areas of northern Britain.

Anglo-Saxon Migration (5th – 6th Century):

Post-Roman Collapse: After the Romans withdrew, Britain entered a period often referred to as the Dark Ages. Without a centralized power, Britain was divided into several small kingdoms and was subject to raids from various tribes.
Anglo-Saxon Settlement: During the 5th and 6th centuries, Anglo-Saxons from Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands began to settle in Britain, particularly in the south and east. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms—including Kent, Wessex, Northumbria, and Mercia—were established.
Conversion to Christianity: The Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons began in the 6th century, most notably with the arrival of St. Augustine in 597 CE. His mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity led to the establishment of monasteries and churches, which became central to both religious and political life in Anglo-Saxon Britain.

Anglo-Saxon Kingship and Culture:

King Alfred the Great (871-899): One of the most notable Anglo-Saxon rulers was Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, who defended against Viking invasions and is remembered for his efforts to promote education and legal reform. He played a critical role in the development of Anglo-Saxon law and culture.
Viking Invasions: Starting in the late 8th century, the Vikings began their raids on Britain, starting with the sacking of Lindisfarne in 793 CE. Over the next two centuries, Viking forces established the Danelaw in the northern and eastern parts of Britain. This led to cultural and political changes in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

The Norman Conquest (1066 CE)

The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 CE is a significant turning point in British history, marking the end of the Anglo-Saxon period and the beginning of Norman rule under William the Conqueror.

The Battle of Hastings:

In 1066, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (in modern-day France), claimed the English throne after the death of King Edward the Confessor. William’s forces defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings, establishing Norman control over England.

Changes Under Norman Rule:

Feudalism: The Normans introduced a feudal system to England, redistributing land to Norman lords and establishing castles across the country to control the population.
Domesday Book: One of the most notable aspects of William’s rule was the creation of the Domesday Book in 1086, a comprehensive survey of England’s land, resources, and population, which helped to establish a more efficient system of taxation and governance.

Cultural and Linguistic Shifts:

The Normans introduced French as the language of the court and law, creating a significant linguistic divide between the ruling classes and the Anglo-Saxon peasants. Over time, this led to the blending of Old English and Norman French, laying the groundwork for the development of Middle English.

The Legacy of the Brigantes:

Even though the Brigantes did not survive as a distinct tribe following the Anglo-Saxon settlement, their legacy is still present in the modern landscape. The Thornborough Henges, a major prehistoric site in Brigantian territory, serves as a reminder of the tribe’s importance. The cultural influence of the Brigantes, particularly their connections to Celtic traditions, likely played a role in shaping the broader development of the Northumbrian Kingdom and other Celtic-influenced areas.

Conclusion

The Roman period in the British Isles marked the high point of urbanization and Romanization, followed by a period of political fragmentation after the Roman withdrawal. The Anglo-Saxon period saw the development of key kingdoms and the eventual spread of Christianity. The arrival of the Vikings and their later integration into British society contributed to the complex social and political landscape of early medieval Britain. The Norman Conquest in 1066 dramatically altered the course of English history, leading to a new political order and cultural changes that still echo today.

Anglo-saxon, Boudicca, British Isles, caesar, Cartimandua, guide, Julius, Norman Invasion, Period, Roman, Roman Invasion, Venutius
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Jan 23

Guide – Archaeological Periods in Western Europe

By George in Archaeology, Bronze Age, Guide, Iron Age, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Palaeolithic, Period

A landscape showing the evolution of human history

Contents

1 Archaeological Periods in Western Europe: An Overview
2 The Prehistoric Periods (Before 3000 BCE)
- 2.1 Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
- 2.2 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) (c. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE)
3 Neolithic (New Stone Age) (c. 6,000 BCE – 2,000 BCE)
- 3.1 Introduction of Agriculture and Settlements
4 The Bronze Age (c. 2,000 BCE – 700 BCE)
- 4.1 Emergence of Metallurgy and Complex Societies
5 The Iron Age (c. 700 BCE – 43 CE)
- 5.1 The Rise of Complex Societies and Iron Technology
6 Conclusion:

Archaeological Periods in Western Europe: An Overview

Understanding the archaeological periods across Western Europe is essential for exploring the evolution of human societies from prehistory to the beginnings of written history. These periods are generally defined by shifts in technology, social organization, and the environment, and they often vary slightly from region to region. In this section, we’ll explore the broad archaeological periods across the British Isles and mainland Europe, focusing on significant differences between regions like Britain, Ireland, Spain, France, Portugal, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy.

The Prehistoric Periods (Before 3000 BCE)

Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

Britain and Ireland: The Palaeolithic is the earliest period of prehistory, spanning from the first appearance of humans in Europe around 1 million years ago to about 10,000 BCE. In the British Isles, the period is known for hunter-gatherers, such as the Neanderthals (who lived in Britain during the Middle Palaeolithic) and the later modern humans (Homo sapiens) during the Upper Palaeolithic. Evidence includes flint tools and cave art like the Creswell Crags in England.
Mainland Europe: Similarly, the Palaeolithic period in Spain and France is marked by Neanderthal and early human presence, with notable sites like Altamira in Spain (famous for its cave paintings) and Chauvet Cave in France.
Spain, France, and Portugal: The Iberian Peninsula is particularly rich in prehistoric art and evidence of early human settlements, including Neanderthal habitation in caves and the development of Mousterian tools.
Italy: Italy’s Palaeolithic sites show evidence of Homo sapiens arriving, with notable sites like Grotta del Cavallo. Some of the most famous Palaeolithic art is also found in the caves of southern France and northern Spain.

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) (c. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE)

Britain and Ireland: After the last Ice Age, around 10,000 BCE, Mesolithic people began to adapt to a warming climate. This period is known for the transition from big-game hunting to fishing and gathering. In Britain, barbed fishing hooks, microliths, and settlement sites such as Star Carr in North Yorkshire provide evidence of early human life.
Mainland Europe: The Mesolithic in France, Spain, and Italy shows similar patterns of hunter-gatherer societies transitioning to semi-sedentary lifestyles, with evidence of settlements and early agriculture. Switzerland and Austria have lake dwellings (known as palafittes) dating from this time.
Portugal and Spain: Along the coastlines, Mesolithic communities are recognized for their maritime exploitation, using shellfish beds and coastal resources. Cave sites in Spain and Portugal provide rich evidence of this period.

Neolithic (New Stone Age) (c. 6,000 BCE – 2,000 BCE)

Introduction of Agriculture and Settlements

Britain and Ireland: The Neolithic in the British Isles marks a significant shift from hunter-gathering to agriculture. Around 4000 BCE, people began to farm and build permanent settlements, with evidence from sites like Skara Brae in Orkney and Newgrange in Ireland. This period is also noted for megalithic structures and rituals.
Mainland Europe: The Neolithic began earlier in mainland Europe, especially in regions like France, Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula. In Spain, agriculture and pottery appeared around 5,500 BCE, and megalithic tombs such as those in Andalusia indicate a shared cultural tradition with the British Isles. Italy is known for its early agricultural settlements, while Switzerland has preserved lake settlements.
Portugal and Spain: The Iberian Peninsula saw the rise of farming villages and circular dwellings, while Portugal and the north of Spain show evidence of early pottery and stone structures.
Italy: Italy was an early adopter of farming, with evidence of the first agricultural practices dating back to around 6,000 BCE. Megalithic tombs and early pottery are found in central and southern Italy, and the Neolithic period sees the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture in the east.

The Bronze Age (c. 2,000 BCE – 700 BCE)

Emergence of Metallurgy and Complex Societies

Britain and Ireland: The Bronze Age in Britain saw the arrival of metalworking and the development of early chieftain societies. Wheeled vehicles, bronze tools, and barrow burials characterize this period, with prominent sites like Stonehenge and Avebury in England, and Newgrange in Ireland, now seen as important ritual centres.
Mainland Europe: In countries like France, Italy, and Spain, the Bronze Age marks the rise of metallurgy. The introduction of bronze tools and weapons, along with an increasing shift towards urbanization, are key trends. Switzerland is famous for its lake dwellings, and the Hallstatt culture (found in Austria and surrounding regions) is a hallmark of this period.
Portugal and Spain: The Iberian Peninsula was marked by the development of bronze working in coastal regions, with significant evidence of trade and burial customs. Portugal and northern Spain were influenced by Celtic migrations toward the end of the Bronze Age.
Italy: Italy’s Bronze Age was marked by the rise of the Apennine culture, which was characterized by bronze tool usage and burial mounds. The influence of the Mediterranean was evident, especially in coastal cities like Rome, which was in its early formative stages.

The Iron Age (c. 700 BCE – 43 CE)

The Rise of Complex Societies and Iron Technology

Britain and Ireland: The Iron Age in the British Isles is marked by the dominance of Celtic culture, with people living in hillforts and tribal societies. Druidic beliefs, warrior cultures, and advanced metallurgy flourished, setting the stage for the Roman conquest.
Mainland Europe: The Celtic culture spread widely across Europe, especially in France, Spain, and Italy, where the Celts interacted with local cultures and developed their own distinct identities. The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures represent two major phases of the Celtic Iron Age in Europe.
Portugal and Spain: The Iberian Peninsula saw the Celtic influence from the Hallstatt culture, particularly in Galicia and northern Spain, where the Celtic tribes interacted with the Iberians. The Celtiberians were a mix of Celtic and Iberian peoples.
Italy: The Etruscan civilization in Italy thrived during the Iron Age and played a major role in the development of Rome, influencing Roman culture and urban planning. Celtic tribes in northern Italy also interacted with local cultures.

Conclusion:

Western Europe’s archaeological periods span from the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) to the Iron Age, marking the evolution of human societies, technologies, and cultures. Each region—Britain, Ireland, and mainland Europe—shares certain trends, such as the rise of agriculture, metalworking, and complex societies, yet each has its own unique historical timeline and cultural identity. Galicia, with its Celtic roots, sits at the crossroads of these larger trends, showing both connections to Iberian and Celtic cultures, offering exciting possibilities for understanding the Brigantes and their relationship to this broader cultural context.

Jan 23

Guide – Landscape Archaeology: Post-Ice Age Landscape of Thornborough

By George in Archaeology, Guide, Landscape Archaeology, Reports

Understanding the Development of Nature at Thornborough Before Human Arrival

Post-Ice Age Landscape:

The landscape of Thornborough before the arrival of humans was shaped by the end of the last Ice Age, approximately 10,000 years ago. As the glaciers receded, the land began to warm, leading to the rebirth of plant and animal life. The area would have been covered by a mosaic of vegetation that slowly replaced the tundra-like conditions left behind by the retreating ice sheets.

Vegetation and Flora:

Pine and Birch Woodland: Early post-glacial landscapes were characterized by pioneer species such as birch and pine that gradually colonized the open land. These trees were well adapted to the cooler, wet conditions following the Ice Age.

Mixed Woodlands: Over time, the landscape shifted toward mixed woodlands as oak, ash, and hazel began to dominate the landscape. The area would have likely seen a rich diversity of deciduous forests, where trees like lime and elm began to thrive as the climate warmed.

Heathland and Grassland: The more open areas, particularly near water sources or on the edges of the woodland, would have been covered by heathland and grasses, providing ideal habitats for many small mammals and birds.

Climate and Wetlands:

Wetlands and river valleys would have been a significant feature of the area, especially along the Ure and Wharfe Rivers, and these would have provided rich habitats for aquatic plants and a variety of water-loving animals.

Wet Meadows and Marshes: In places where the land remained waterlogged, marshy grasslands and wet meadows would have been common, supporting a wide range of wildflowers, grasses, and aquatic plants, and providing perfect breeding grounds for insects and amphibians.

Animal Life:

Mammals: Early post-glacial animals like the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros would have been present, though they quickly became extinct as the climate changed. These large megafauna were replaced by deer, wild boar, and smaller mammals such as hares and foxes.

Birds and Insects: The wetlands and forests would have been home to a variety of waterfowl, including swans and ducks, while songbirds and raptors like eagles likely nested in the trees. A variety of insects, such as beetles, butterflies, and dragonflies, would have populated the area, helping to maintain the health of the ecosystem.

Fish and Amphibians: In the rivers, species like salmon, trout, and smaller freshwater species would have been abundant. The wetlands would have hosted a wide variety of frogs, toads, and newts.

How Firm is our Understanding?

To understand how Thornborough’s landscape developed and what its flora and fauna may have looked like just before the arrival of humans, we need to consider a combination of geological, archaeological, and paleoenvironmental evidence. Each of these disciplines helps paint a clearer picture, but there are varying levels of certainty depending on the type of evidence we have.

Let’s go step by step through the available evidence and its reliability:

Paleoenvironmental Evidence (Understanding past climates and ecosystems)

Sediment and Pollen Analysis:

Pollen cores extracted from peat bogs, lake beds, or river sediments provide critical insights into past vegetation. By examining pollen grains trapped in layers of sediment, scientists can reconstruct the types of plants that were present at different points in time.

Certainty: High. Pollen analysis is one of the most direct ways to determine past vegetation and climate. Pollen can be very specific to plant species, giving us detailed data about what types of vegetation were present.

Evidence at Thornborough: If there are cores taken from nearby riverbeds or peat bogs in the region, they would show the transition from tundra to temperate woodlands as the glaciers receded. We also know that oak and hazel trees began to spread in the region around 8000 BC.

Fossilized Remains of Plants and Animals:

Fossilized plant and animal remains, such as seeds, leaves, and bones, offer insights into the types of species that were present in the area. This can include large mammals, small fauna, birds, fish, and insects, as well as aquatic plants and grasses that thrived in wetland environments.

Certainty: Moderate to high, depending on the Preservation conditions. Fossils can be subject to decay or displacement, but with well-preserved specimens, the evidence is quite reliable.

Evidence at Thornborough: Evidence from surrounding regions like North Yorkshire has provided mammal bones and plant seeds, showing the presence of species such as deer, boar, and oak forests. This suggests that similar fauna would have populated Thornborough.

Carbon Dating of Organic Material:

Organic materials like wood, charcoal, or seeds can be carbon-dated to provide a timeline for when certain plants or animals were present in the area.

Certainty: High. Carbon dating provides a precise timeline, helping to pinpoint specific periods when certain species were in the region.

Evidence at Thornborough: If carbon-dated material from any archaeological sites in Thornborough or nearby has been found, it could confirm the presence of specific plants and animals in that area around 10,000-6,000 years ago.

Archaeological Evidence (Understanding human activity and impact)

Stone Tools and Settlement Evidence:

Stone tools or evidence of temporary settlements provide clues about when humans began to occupy the area. These tools can sometimes indicate the kinds of plants and animals they might have interacted with or relied on.

Certainty: Moderate. The appearance of tools suggests human activity, but it’s often difficult to definitively link specific tools to specific plants or animals without further evidence.

Evidence at Thornborough: The area surrounding Thornborough, especially the henges themselves, has provided evidence of early human activity, though direct evidence of early agriculture might not be abundant. Still, this would indicate a slow development of human-environment interaction, which would likely have impacted the landscape.

Animal Remains (Zooarchaeology):

The remains of animals that have been hunted, consumed, or used for other purposes by humans (e.g., bones and teeth) can help us understand the types of animals that were important for survival.

Certainty: High. Archaeologists are adept at identifying and dating animal remains, and they can offer clear insights into what was available to early humans in the region.

Evidence at Thornborough: Remains of deer, wild boar, and possibly foxes or hares would likely be found at nearby prehistoric sites, showing that these animals were key species before the arrival of farming or human domestication of animals.

Geological Evidence (Understanding the physical landscape)

Soil and Sediment Analysis:

The study of the soils in the Thornborough area—whether they were formed by glacial activity or by the spread of vegetation—can offer insights into what types of plants could thrive at different times.

Certainty: High. Soil samples provide direct evidence of the landscape, giving us the best idea of how it looked before human intervention.

Evidence at Thornborough: Sediment and soil analysis would indicate the presence of wetlands, river valleys, and woodlands. This would suggest that Thornborough was covered in rich, moist environments ideal for trees and grasslands.

Environmental Reconstructions Using Models:

Models of past environments based on a combination of pollen data, fossil records, and climatic models can be used to visualize what the area might have looked like. These models take into account factors like climate change, vegetation shifts, and human activities to recreate an image of the landscape.

Certainty: Moderate to high. These models are as accurate as the data they are based on, but they can give us a general sense of the environment.

Evidence at Thornborough: Using surrounding areas for comparison, environmental models can suggest that Thornborough would have been a rich, biodiverse environment, with forested areas likely transitioning into open grasslands and wetlands.

Summary: How Certain Are We?

High Certainty: We have fairly strong evidence from pollen cores, fossil remains, and soil analysis to show that Thornborough was likely covered with a mosaic of vegetation, including mixed woodlands (oak, ash, hazel), wet meadows, and wetlands. The presence of large herbivores like deer and wild boar is supported by fossil records.

Moderate Certainty: We can reasonably infer that early human activity (based on nearby archaeological sites) began to interact with this landscape, but the exact timeline and extent of human impact on the flora and fauna remains somewhat uncertain. Zooarchaeological evidence from nearby sites provides a strong indication of the animals early humans relied on, but the specific plants in use remain less certain without more direct evidence of agriculture or domestication.

Room for Improvement: Direct evidence for the pre-human environment in Thornborough—like specific plant fossils or charcoal samples tied directly to the landscape—would increase our certainty. But we can reasonably infer that Thornborough’s environment around 10,000-6,000 years ago would have been rich in temperate forests and wetlands, supporting a wide range of flora and fauna.

Jan 23

Guide – Empathic Archaeology: The Ancestral Honour Thought Exercise

By George in Archaeology, Empathic Archaeology, Guide, Reports

A father and son working together in a field, around 20,000 BC.

Contents

1 The Evolution of Thought: A Father’s Hands and the Birth of Ancestor Reverence
2 The Joy of First Lessons: A Father, Son, and Grandfather’s Legacy
3 Interwoven Generations: The Sacredness of Family Memory
4 The Importance for Modern Explorers of the Past

The Evolution of Thought: A Father’s Hands and the Birth of Ancestor Reverence

Imagine a young boy, observing his father in the field. His father works tirelessly, day in and day out, digging a drainage ditch in the earth, an essential part of their survival. As the boy watches, he doesn’t see just the back-breaking work; he sees the honour it brings to the family. He sees how the neighbours look to his father with respect and how the entire family is raised in esteem because of his father’s skill and ingenuity.

As the father works, he teaches his son not just the practicalities of digging and shaping the earth but also the mindset that comes with it—the importance of the land, the seasons, the way in which the water needs to be controlled, the delicate balance between nature and human intervention. The boy learns the significance of these tasks, not just for survival but for the sacredness they hold. The earth that his father works is not simply soil—it is the land of his ancestors. It holds the wisdom of generations who have worked and lived in harmony with it.

The boy grows into a man, and one day, years later, he finds himself teaching his own son. He’s teaching the next generation to dig ditches, to care for the land. But this time, as he looks into his son’s eyes, something profound happens: he sees his father in his son. The cycle has come full circle. The father realizes that through his actions, through the wisdom he imparts, he is not just teaching a skill; he is embodying his father’s legacy—the very hands that once shaped the earth now live through him.

And so, the father begins to understand something deeper. In teaching his son, he is not just passing on knowledge—he is bringing his father’s spirit into the present. The boy’s hands are now connected to his grandfather’s hands, and through this shared action, the bond of family and tradition becomes a living, breathing thing. This practice—this simple act of digging a ditch—is no longer just about practicality. It is about continuity, respect, and honour for those who came before.

The father, moved by this realization, decides to have a specific event, a ritual, to honour his father. It’s not just a gathering; it’s a celebration of the past, a recognition of the sacrifices, the hard work, and the wisdom of the ancestors. In this moment, the father and son don’t just dig a ditch—they lift their forebears up and acknowledge the sacredness of their labour, the labour that sustained the family for generations. And in doing so, they cement a new tradition: not of worshiping the divine, but of recognizing the divinity within the family and the sacred acts of those who came before.

What we often overlook in our studies of the past is how these everyday practices could have taken on a spiritual significance over time. In a world without written language, without complex religious rituals, the act of remembering and honouring the ancestors could have been embedded into the very fabric of society. It didn’t require “spiritual magic” to be powerful. It was simply a recognition that the hands that worked the land, the minds that solved problems, and the hearts that passed down knowledge were part of something larger than the individual—they were part of a living tradition.

In our modern world, we sometimes dismiss these practices as mere superstition or primitive thinking. But we must stop and ask: what if these actions weren’t just born of an external spiritual impulse? What if they were simply a natural progression of humans recognizing that their ancestors weren’t just a distant memory but a living force that still influenced the present? In passing on knowledge, they were not just honouring their father—they were spiritually embodying their father’s legacy, allowing his presence to live on through their actions.

This is where ancestor worship may have had some of its roots—not in a mystical or magical belief, but in the deeply held human need to honour the effort and wisdom of those who paved the way for the next generation. It was not an imposition of belief from a distant god, but a natural, human ritual born from the recognition that we are part of something larger, something that has been passed down from one generation to the next, through labour, love, and learning.

The Joy of First Lessons: A Father, Son, and Grandfather’s Legacy

The day had arrived. The young lad, whose eyes had long watched his father toil away at the fields, finally stood beside him with a shovel in hand, ready to take his first steps into the legacy of the family. The earth before him, rich and dark, seemed full of promise. For years, he had been too small, too young, to truly help—but today, today was different. Today, he was allowed to participate. His heart raced with excitement, and the air felt alive with the energy of that moment.

This wasn’t just a lesson in how to dig a drainage ditch or clear a field. This was the day he became a part of something bigger than himself. His father had worked these lands, just as his father had before him, and now the young boy was joining them—the legacy of three generations converging in this one simple, yet monumental act.

As the father handed over the shovel, he could see the spark in his son’s eyes—the same spark he had once seen in his own father. With each moment, the past seemed to come alive. He began to speak, not just of the practicalities of the work, but of memories, of stories, of laughter. “Your grandfather,” he said, with a soft chuckle, “he always swore that the hardest part of digging this ditch wasn’t the work itself, but the wind. He said it was the wind that would turn his hands into blocks of ice before the shovel ever touched the earth.”

The boy laughed, a sound full of wonder, imagining the strong, stoic figure of his grandfather, now a memory in the tales his father told. The more the father spoke, the more the boy felt himself drawn into that shared history. His grandfather’s presence wasn’t just a distant memory—it was alive in his father’s voice, in the stories that wove together past and present.

And then, as if by magic, the grandfather seemed to enter the scene once more. Not in person, but in spirit. The boy could almost hear him, as his father spoke of how his own hands had once learned this very skill—how his father’s hands had taught him to shape the earth, just as his hands would now teach his son. The circle of learning, of wisdom, of love, seemed to expand before him, connecting the three generations in an unspoken bond.

The boy paused, standing with his shovel in hand. He felt a deep sense of connection, not just to his father, but to his grandfather, who had once taught his father the same lesson. The energy of the moment was alive with memories, stories, and laughter—the heartbeats of his family pulsing through time.

The father smiled as he watched his son, seeing in him the reflection of his own youth, and even the reflection of his father’s youth, the same determination in their eyes. It wasn’t just about the ditch. It was about family. It was about honouring the past through the simple act of teaching, and in doing so, bringing the past into the present.

And so, in this moment, the boy learned not just how to dig a ditch—but how to honour his ancestors, how to connect with his family’s legacy. He felt the deep connection between the men who had come before him, felt it in his hands, in the earth beneath his feet, in his father’s voice telling those stories. He was, in that moment, not just a student, but a part of something larger, something sacred.

The father finished the story with a quiet reverence, his voice softening. “And your grandfather,” he said, “he always used to say that the land never forgets, that the earth holds the memory of all who’ve worked it. So, when you dig, remember this—you’re not just shaping the earth, you’re shaping the future.”

The boy nodded, feeling the weight of his father’s words settle into his heart. And for the first time, he understood—he was part of that memory, that deep, living connection of the past, present, and future. And in this moment, he realized that the work wasn’t just about digging ditches. It was about digging into the heart of family, the sacred bond that connects generations, and the shared wisdom that flows from one generation to the next.

As they continued their work, the boy felt his grandfather’s presence in the rhythm of the shovel, in the laughter that echoed between him and his father. And in the quiet of that afternoon, as they worked together, he understood that family, memory, and legacy weren’t just ideas. They were living, breathing forces that shaped the world.

Interwoven Generations: The Sacredness of Family Memory

In this way, the work itself became the ritual, and the boy’s understanding of his ancestors and his place in the family’s history grew with every shovel of earth he turned. His grandfather, through his father’s stories, was no longer just a memory. He was alive in the actions of the present, embodied in the earth that his family had worked for generations.

This moment wasn’t just the boy learning to dig a ditch. It was the creation of a ritual, a sacred act of remembering, passed from father to son, with the deep connection to his grandfather anchoring it all. And in that act, the boy learned the most important lesson: that he, too, would someday pass on this legacy—not just of skill, but of honour, love, and family memory.

The Importance for Modern Explorers of the Past

As modern explorers of the past, we must approach history with this understanding in mind. We must recognize that many practices—like ancestor worship—could have emerged as a natural response to the cultural and familial bonds that were formed during these monumental acts of labour.

These rituals and traditions may not have been a product of mystical or divine forces but rather a deeply human need to connect, to honour, and to recognize the sacredness of the past. The more we understand this, the more we can see that the seemingly mundane actions of our ancestors were not trivial—they were part of the spiritual fabric that held their societies together.

In the same way that the father looks at his son and sees the legacy of his own father, we too must look at the past and see the legacy of those who came before—not just as dead history, but as an ongoing force, a reminder that each new generation is part of an endless cycle of learning, teaching, and remembering.

This exercise emphasizes the need for us, as historical explorers, to be mindful of the spiritual significance inherent in many of the actions and practices of the past. Our modern lens can sometimes blind us to the true richness of these rituals. The work of our ancestors wasn’t just about survival—it was about connecting the past to the present, and recognizing that each step forward carries with it the weight of generations that have shaped and guided us.

Jan 23

Briefing – Galicia’s Political History and Separatist Sentiment

By George in Briefing, Reports, Spain

Castro de Santa Trega Terracing

Contents

1 Galicia’s Political History and Separatist Sentiment
2 Conclusion

Galicia’s Political History and Separatist Sentiment

Celtic Heritage and Regional Identity:

Galicia’s Celtic origins have long played a significant role in shaping the region’s cultural and political identity. Historically, Galicia was inhabited by Celtic tribes, and this heritage is still celebrated today in Galician culture, language, and folklore. The Galician language (Galego) is a Romance language that has distinct Celtic influences, and it remains an important marker of Galician identity. Many Galicians view themselves not only as Spaniards but as part of the wider Celtic world, which includes Ireland, Scotland, and Wales—regions also with Celtic roots.

This distinctiveness has contributed to the development of a strong sense of regional pride and autonomy, which at times has manifested in political calls for independence or greater self-governance from the central Spanish state.

The Spanish Constitution and Galicia’s Autonomy:

Spain’s 1978 Constitution established autonomous communities, granting varying degrees of self-rule to regions such as Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia, and others. Galicia became an autonomous community in 1981, receiving a statute of autonomy that recognized the region’s historical identity and linguistic uniqueness.

This autonomy has allowed Galicia to manage many of its own affairs, such as education, health, and culture, while still remaining part of the broader Spanish state. However, this degree of self-rule has never completely satisfied the desires of some in the region who push for full independence or at least greater autonomy.

Separatist Movements and Political Tension:

The political landscape in Galicia has been influenced by various separatist movements, but these movements have not been as intense or violent as those in the Basque Country or Catalonia. However, there has been a steady undercurrent of Galician nationalism that advocates for greater independence or self-determination.

Historical Separatism: The roots of the separatist sentiment can be traced to Galicia’s Celtic roots, with a historical desire to protect Galician culture and language from being marginalized by the central government. The Spanish crown, and later the Spanish state, imposed Castilian (the Spanish language) as the dominant language and culture, leaving the Galician language and many Celtic traditions at risk of being eroded.

Political Movements: There are several political movements in Galicia that push for greater autonomy or independence, although they are not as large-scale or as widely supported as those in Catalonia or the Basque Country. For example, the Galician Nationalist Bloc (BNG) is a political party that advocates for the promotion of Galician culture and language while also pushing for greater autonomy within Spain. A smaller faction, the Galician People’s Union (UPG), has even called for full independence.

Cultural Renaissance: Over the last few decades, there has been a cultural renaissance in Galicia, where the region’s Celtic heritage is being increasingly celebrated. Galician music, dance, and folklore have enjoyed a resurgence, and Galician language is now being taught in schools and spoken more widely. This cultural revival has fuelled nationalist sentiments, as many in Galicia see their Celtic past as an important aspect of their distinct identity.

Galicia within the Broader Spanish Context:

While the separatist sentiment in Galicia is notable, it does not dominate the political scene in the same way it does in Catalonia or the Basque Country. Several factors contribute to this:

Less Economic Power: Unlike Catalonia and the Basque Country, Galicia is not as economically prosperous, so calls for independence or greater autonomy are often less pronounced.
Political Moderation: The political landscape in Galicia tends to be more moderate, with parties like the Galician Socialist Party and the Popular Party (PP) often taking a more centrist position that favours maintaining the current autonomy but not full independence.
Cultural Pride, Not Political Extremism: For many Galicians, their Celtic heritage and language represent a cultural pride rather than a basis for full political separation. While there are certainly voices calling for greater independence, these are often balanced by pragmatic politics that seek to preserve Galician traditions while remaining a part of Spain.

The Future of Galician Separatism:

While full independence is not a mainstream political goal in Galicia, the region’s unique Celtic roots and distinct cultural identity will likely continue to fuel calls for greater autonomy. Decentralization and Cultural Preservation will remain central themes in the region’s politics, especially as Galicia faces challenges such as economic disparities, population decline, and the Preservation of its language and culture.

In the context of Brigantium and the Brigantes, there are many historical and cultural threads that may tie Galicia’s Celtic heritage to the Celtic peoples of Britain and Ireland. The idea of regional identity and ancestral pride is something that could provide rich material for understanding the connections between the Galicians and the Brigantes, as both shared strong traditions rooted in land and ancestry.

Conclusion

Galicia’s Celtic origins and regional autonomy continue to play a significant role in its political landscape. While separatism isn’t as extreme as in other parts of Spain, there is a strong and persistent sentiment of Cultural Preservation and a desire for greater self-rule. This complex relationship between the Galician identity and the Spanish state makes it an intriguing region, especially in relation to the possible connections between the Galicians and the Brigantes. By exploring Galicia’s history, culture, and political landscape, we can deepen our understanding of how the region’s Celtic past has shaped its present and may offer clues to the shared history between the Galician tribes and the Brigantes.

Jan 23

Guide – Critical Thinking: The Simple Assumption

By George in Archaeology, Critical Thinking, Free Thinking, Guide, Reports

A car in a river and the driver saying it is a car park

Contents

1 The Simple Assumption: How Our Perceptions of the Past Can Lead to Cognitive Bias
2 The Complexity Behind Simplicity
3 The Cognitive Bias of Simplicity
4 The Impact of Simple Innovations
5 The Importance of Questioning Assumptions
6 Conclusion: Reassessing the “Simple”

The Simple Assumption: How Our Perceptions of the Past Can Lead to Cognitive Bias

We often take for granted the advancements we see in the world today. Many inventions, breakthroughs, and societal changes feel almost mundane to us, simply because we are accustomed to living in an era where they are well-established. From the smartphone in our pockets to the internet that connects us globally, much of modern life seems simple. But, when we look back at the past, especially through the lens of human history, it’s crucial to recognize that every new development, no matter how apparently simple it seems to us today, was once as monumental and difficult to achieve as a global Einstein moment.

This article delves into how what we might perceive as “simple” in modern times could, in fact, be a misleading assumption, undervaluing the intellectual, emotional, and physical effort it took to arrive at these breakthroughs. Even the most seemingly mundane inventions or practices may have been the result of years of labour, struggle, and complex thought processes. In fact, they may have been as impactful as the nuclear bomb—transforming societies, economies, and environments in ways we often overlook today.

The Complexity Behind Simplicity

Let’s consider the invention of basic tools—an axe, a plough, or even the construction of a drainage ditch. To us, these seem like simple solutions that have been around for millennia. However, in their time, the minds that devised these tools and techniques were faced with seemingly insurmountable problems. The creation of the first tools was likely a leap forward in cognitive evolution. It wasn’t just a matter of hitting a rock against a stick and calling it a tool. It was about understanding the relationship between materials, shaping tools to fit specific purposes, and developing the mental capacity to predict how these tools would affect the environment and human survival.

In the context of their time, these developments were monumental. They were the equivalent of what we would now consider ground-breaking inventions—like the development of the internet, the discovery of electricity, or even the atomic bomb. Each of these seemingly simple innovations represented the culmination of collective effort, creativity, and problem-solving that changed the course of human history.

What seems simple to us today may have once been a revolutionary concept that, in the context of the past, carried enormous intellectual weight. Every development, no matter how seemingly minor, had to overcome cognitive hurdles, prejudices, and limitations of the time.

The Cognitive Bias of Simplicity

A key factor in how we perceive past advancements as simple is cognitive bias—the tendency to view things through a distorted lens shaped by our own experiences and understandings. We often assume that things were as easy to achieve in the past as they are in our present, underestimating the complexity of early human thought and invention.

This bias can be especially harmful in fields like archaeology, where simplified narratives often dominate. It’s easy to look at ancient tools, architecture, or even the beginnings of agriculture and think, “That must have been simple for them to figure out.” But when we strip away our modern assumptions, we realize that these were monumental moments in cognitive development. The tools, techniques, and systems we take for granted today were unfathomable feats of innovation in their time.

For example, early humans had to develop an understanding of the natural world that we take for granted today: how to plant, how to manipulate the environment for food, how to build shelters, how to organize a community. These developments were not achieved in a moment of inspiration; they required long periods of trial and error, intergenerational knowledge, and the ability to learn from failure.

The Impact of Simple Innovations

When we fail to recognize the complexity of these early innovations, we risk losing the full context of their impact. The development of agriculture, for instance, is often seen as a straightforward transition from hunting and gathering to farming. But in reality, this shift was as transformative as any scientific breakthrough in history. It didn’t just change how humans fed themselves—it altered the entire structure of society, led to the development of cities, and fundamentally changed our relationship with the natural world.

Similarly, the creation of a drainage ditch in ancient times may seem simple, but it marked a profound shift in how humans interacted with water, land, and their environment. It wasn’t just about moving water away from a field—it was a cognitive leap in managing resources, improving agriculture, and shaping settlements. What we see as a simple irrigation system may have taken generations to develop, as humans learned to understand water cycles, soil quality, and the best ways to manipulate them for survival.

Every new development, even one as seemingly modest as a ditch, would have had profound social, economic, and environmental consequences. These innovations were as revolutionary as any modern scientific discovery, and their impact was felt across entire societies.

The Importance of Questioning Assumptions

The need to question assumptions becomes even more pressing when we recognize that these historical innovations were often misunderstood, misrepresented, or oversimplified. By assuming that something as significant as the development of agriculture or drainage was an obvious, simple solution, we risk underestimating the true nature of these accomplishments. This bias clouds our understanding of history and the way we interpret evidence.

In archaeology, the danger is that we might treat past achievements as simple, linear progressions, missing the complexity of human thought and the intellectual breakthroughs that accompanied each innovation. We must be vigilant and remind ourselves that every small step forward—no matter how it seems today—was once a monumental leap in understanding.

Just as we must recognize that past developments were hard-won victories for human thought, we must also question our own assumptions about the simplicity of the present. In a world increasingly shaped by rapid technological advances, it’s easy to assume that every innovation will be simple or inevitable. But we must be cautious of this cognitive bias—the next big breakthrough may appear simple on the surface, but in the context of history, it may be as profound and transformative as anything that came before it.

Conclusion: Reassessing the “Simple”

When we look at the past, we must remember that nothing was simple when it was first conceived. Every development, from the wheel to the plough, from the first shelter to the first city, required immense intellectual effort. These were Einstein moments in their time—each one of them transformative, difficult, and sometimes as impactful as the atomic bomb.

By questioning our assumptions about the simplicity of the past, we not only gain a deeper understanding of human ingenuity but also avoid the trap of simplifying our own world too much. Just as our ancestors struggled to push the boundaries of thought, so must we continue to question and challenge the assumptions that may limit our progress today.

Jan 23

Guide – Landscape Features: The Impact of Drainage Ditches

By George in Archaeology, Earthworks, Field Systems, Guide, Landscape Archaeology, Reports

The flora of a drainage ditch

Understanding the Ecological Impact of Drainage Ditches: An Empathic Perspective

Introduction: A Shift in the Landscape

Imagine yourself as a member of an early human community, deeply connected to the land and its rhythms. The creation of a drainage ditch is not merely a physical alteration; it’s a profound change in the environment that affects all living beings. As you dig and shape the earth, you’re not just moving soil—you’re transforming a habitat, influencing the lives of countless organisms that depend on the natural state of the land.

The Natural State: A Rich, Uninterrupted Habitat

Before human intervention, the area is a vibrant tapestry of life. The soil is rich with nutrients, supporting a diverse array of plants, insects, and microorganisms. Water naturally accumulates in low-lying areas, creating temporary pools that serve as breeding grounds for amphibians and insects. The vegetation is lush, with a mix of grasses, wildflowers, and shrubs, providing food and shelter for various species. This dynamic environment is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of nature.

The Human Touch: Introducing the Drainage Ditch

As you begin to dig the drainage ditch, the immediate effect is the removal of vegetation and the disruption of the soil structure. The once waterlogged area will now be drained, altering the moisture levels and temperature of the soil. This change can lead to the loss of species that thrived in wet conditions, such as certain amphibians and moisture-loving plants. The introduction of the ditch itself creates a new microhabitat, which may be inhospitable to some species while offering opportunities for others.

The Ongoing Impact: Maintenance and Biodiversity

Regular maintenance of the drainage ditch, such as clearing vegetation and managing water flow, continues to influence the surrounding ecosystem. Studies have shown that such activities can reduce the diversity of plant species within the ditch, as frequent disturbance prevents the establishment of stable plant communities. However, some research suggests that with appropriate management, ditches can support a variety of species, including rare aquatic beetles and other invertebrates.

ResearchGate

Empathizing with the Natural World: A Call for Balance

From the perspective of the natural world, the creation and maintenance of a drainage ditch represent a significant alteration. While some species may adapt to the new conditions, others may struggle or disappear. The challenge lies in finding a balance that allows for human needs—such as agriculture and habitation—while preserving the rich biodiversity that existed before. This requires thoughtful planning, incorporating ecological principles into the design and maintenance of drainage systems to minimize negative impacts and promote the resilience of the ecosystem.

Conclusion: Reflecting on the Interconnectedness

As you stand by the newly formed drainage ditch, it’s essential to reflect on the interconnectedness of all life. The changes you’ve made have set off a chain reaction, affecting not only the immediate area but also the broader landscape. By considering the needs and well-being of the natural world, you can strive to create a harmonious environment where both human and ecological needs are met, ensuring the sustainability of the land for future generations.

Further Reading:

Recent Developments in Drainage Ditch Biodiversity

The Guardian

Canals have vital role to play in UK’s climate resilience, says charity

16 days ago

The Times & The Sunday Times

Green makeover creates ‘giant sponge’ to cut town’s flood risk

100 days ago

Sources

Let’s look at this from a more focused ecological perspective, thinking about which species thrive in these altered environments, which don’t, and how the food chain shifts as a result.

Contents

1 The Ecological Impact of Drainage Ditches: Who Thrives and Who Struggles?

The Ecological Impact of Drainage Ditches: Who Thrives and Who Struggles?

When humans modify the landscape by digging drainage ditches, they create new microhabitats—some of which are hospitable to certain species, while others become less suitable for others. This shift in habitat can lead to changes in the food chain, plant community, and the overall biodiversity of the area.

Species That Thrive in Drainage Ditches

Aquatic Invertebrates:
- Drainage ditches can support a wide range of aquatic insects such as water beetles, midges, and mosquito larvae. These species are drawn to the moist conditions and standing water often found in the bottom of the ditch.
- Freshwater snails and damselflies are also commonly found in ditches, attracted by the water, which provides a breeding ground and feeding habitat.
- Certain aquatic plants, like duckweed and watercress, may also thrive in the water-filled ditch, providing food for smaller invertebrates.
Amphibians:
- Amphibians such as frogs and newts are often attracted to ditches, particularly if there is standing water for breeding. They are drawn to the water for laying eggs and the presence of invertebrates as a food source.
- Drainage ditches in agricultural or woodland areas can provide vital wetland habitat for amphibians that require water bodies for part of their life cycle.
Birds:
- Birds like waders (e.g., herons, lapwings, and snipe) may frequent drainage ditches for their invertebrate food sources.
- Certain passerine birds might also use the ditches for drinking or feeding on insects that live in the vegetation along the water’s edge.
Mammals:
- Water voles and mice may be attracted to the vegetation in and around the ditch, which provides both shelter and food, including roots, shoots, and invertebrates. Larger mammals, such as otters, might also frequent ditches if they are located near watercourses.

Species That Struggle With the Wet Conditions

Not all species benefit from the altered landscape of a drainage ditch. The wetness and regular disturbance can make life difficult for some species:

Terrestrial Plants:
- Plants that prefer dry conditions or well-drained soil, such as certain wildflowers or woody shrubs, will likely struggle to establish in the damp, waterlogged environment of a drainage ditch. The presence of invasive wetland species, such as reed canary grass, might also crowd out these more delicate species.
- Certain trees, like oak and birch, may find the wet, nutrient-poor soil conditions of a drainage gully challenging, particularly if the soil is too compacted by regular clearing.
Small Mammals:
- Some small mammals, particularly voles or shrews that thrive in dry undergrowth, may avoid drainage ditches. They prefer areas with thicker vegetation, such as woodland floors or hedgerows, where they can burrow and find shelter from predators.
- In flood-prone areas, the constant disruption and lack of stable vegetation may force these animals to move to more hospitable habitats.
Reptiles:
- Certain reptile species such as lizards or slow worms may avoid ditches as they typically prefer dry, sheltered environments like scrubby fields, woodland edges, or sunny banks. The moist conditions of the ditch may not provide the warm, dry basking conditions that these species need.

How Does the Food Chain Change?

The creation of a drainage ditch impacts the local food chain by altering the distribution and availability of food sources. Here’s how:

Increased Invertebrate Activity: The presence of water and wetland plants leads to an increase in aquatic invertebrates, which are a key food source for many species higher up the food chain. Frogs, newts, and birds of prey that rely on these invertebrates will see an increase in their food supply.
Disruption of Terrestrial Plant Communities: Many animals that rely on terrestrial plants, such as small herbivores, might be forced to move elsewhere as the ditch disrupts their grazing grounds. Similarly, animals like deer or rabbits that thrive in meadows might no longer find sufficient food if the ditch has significantly altered the vegetation.
Altered Predator-Prey Dynamics: The increased presence of aquatic prey such as fish and amphibians may attract predators, including birds of prey, snakes, or even otters. This can shift local predator-prey dynamics, depending on the new abundance of food in the area.

Can Regular Maintenance Affect Biodiversity?

The regular maintenance of drainage ditches—such as clearing plant matter and removing debris—can significantly affect the biodiversity within them. Disturbance of the habitat can:

Reduce Plant Diversity: Plants that are sensitive to disturbance may fail to establish in the ditch, leading to a decline in the variety of plant species present. Regular clearing may prevent plants like wetland grasses or bulrushes from becoming established.
Affect Animal Habitats: Species that rely on stable, undisturbed environments might struggle if their habitat is consistently cleared or altered. Amphibians, for instance, may find it difficult to breed in a ditch that is regularly drained or cleared.

Empathy with Nature: The Natural World’s Response

From the point of view of the natural world, the creation of a drainage ditch is both a disruption and a new opportunity. It forces species to adapt—some may find the altered environment suitable, while others may have to move to more favourable conditions. The key to understanding this change lies in balance. The introduction of the drainage ditch is a human adaptation, but nature adapts too, creating new food webs, habitats, and species interactions.

As we look at this shift from an ecological point of view, it’s clear that human intervention has long-reaching consequences. Understanding these impacts helps us not only to reflect on the role we play in shaping the landscape but also to consider the sustainability of our actions—both for the species we affect directly and the broader ecosystem we rely on.

Conclusion: Reflecting on Human-Nature Interaction

By empathizing with the natural world, we can better understand how our actions impact the ecosystems around us. The creation of a drainage ditch is just one example of how human needs and natural forces intersect. While we may have created the ditch to solve a specific problem, the impact on the flora and fauna of that landscape is profound and far-reaching. The change is not just physical, but ecological, influencing the biodiversity, food chains, and ecosystem balance.

As we continue to interact with our environment, it’s important to recognize the shared space we occupy with other species and the responsibility we bear for maintaining a sustainable and harmonious ecosystem.

Roman Interaction with Galicia and the Iberian Peninsula

Early Roman Interest and Expansion (218 BCE – 133 BCE):

The Romanization of Galicia (Late 1st Century BCE – Early 1st Century CE):

The Conquest of the Gallaeci and Resistance (1st Century CE):

Romanized Galicia (1st – 3rd Century CE):

The Decline of Roman Power and the Fall of Galicia (4th – 5th Century CE):

Key Roman Sites and Influence in Galicia

Conclusion: Roman Galicia and its Lasting Legacy

The Myth of Breogán: A Founding Legend of Galicia

Breogán in Celtic Mythology:

The Tower of Hercules:

Breogán as a Symbol of Celtic Identity:

The Breogán Myth in the Context of Galicia and the Brigantes:

The Legacy of Breogán in Modern Galicia:

Conclusion: Breogán’s Significance in Historical and Mythological Contexts

Exploring Ancient Galicia: A Key to Understanding the Brigantes and the Tower of Heracles

Introduction to Ancient Galicia:

Get Directions

Celtic Galicia and the Brigantes:

The Tower of Heracles: A Symbolic Link Between Galicia and the Brigantes:

Why Galicia is a Key Target Area for Investigations:

Conclusion: Galicia as a Key to Understanding the Brigantes:

Briefing – Galicia’s Political History and Separatist Sentiment

Briefing – Roman Interaction with Galicia and the Iberian Peninsula

Biefing – The Myth of Breogán and the Tower of Heracles

Briefing – Design of Galician Hillforts

Briefing – Geography and Geology of Galicia

Roman Conquest and Expansion (43 CE – 100 CE):

The Roman Invasion and the Brigantes (55 BCE – 43 CE):

Boudica’s Rebellion and the Brigantes’ Response (60-61 CE):

The Brigantes and Cartimandua’s Role:

Romanization and Cultural Impact:

Military Presence and Hadrian’s Wall (100 CE – 410 CE):

The Brigantes and the Roman Conquest:

Agricola and the Roman Advance North (77 CE – 84 CE):

The Brigantes Under Roman Rule:

Hadrian’s Wall and Roman Control (122 CE onwards):

The Antonine Wall and Further Roman Expansion (142 CE – 160 CE):

Decline and Withdrawal (Late 4th Century – 410 CE):

Post-Roman Britain and the Anglo-Saxon Period (5th Century – 8th Century)

The Decline of the Brigantes:

Anglo-Saxon Migration (5th – 6th Century):

Anglo-Saxon Kingship and Culture:

The Norman Conquest (1066 CE)

The Battle of Hastings:

Changes Under Norman Rule:

Cultural and Linguistic Shifts:

The Legacy of the Brigantes:

Conclusion

Archaeological Periods in Western Europe: An Overview

The Prehistoric Periods (Before 3000 BCE)

Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) (c. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE)

Neolithic (New Stone Age) (c. 6,000 BCE – 2,000 BCE)

Introduction of Agriculture and Settlements

The Bronze Age (c. 2,000 BCE – 700 BCE)

Emergence of Metallurgy and Complex Societies

The Iron Age (c. 700 BCE – 43 CE)

The Rise of Complex Societies and Iron Technology

Conclusion:

How Firm is our Understanding?

Summary: How Certain Are We?

The Evolution of Thought: A Father’s Hands and the Birth of Ancestor Reverence

The Joy of First Lessons: A Father, Son, and Grandfather’s Legacy

Interwoven Generations: The Sacredness of Family Memory

The Importance for Modern Explorers of the Past

Galicia’s Political History and Separatist Sentiment

Celtic Heritage and Regional Identity:

The Spanish Constitution and Galicia’s Autonomy:

Separatist Movements and Political Tension:

Galicia within the Broader Spanish Context:

The Future of Galician Separatism:

Conclusion

The Simple Assumption: How Our Perceptions of the Past Can Lead to Cognitive Bias

The Complexity Behind Simplicity

The Cognitive Bias of Simplicity

The Impact of Simple Innovations

The Importance of Questioning Assumptions

Conclusion: Reassessing the “Simple”

The Ecological Impact of Drainage Ditches: Who Thrives and Who Struggles?