Jan 23

Guide – The Power of Air Photo Coverage

Thornborough Southern Henge from the air
Thornborough Southern Henge from the air

The Power of Air Photo Coverage: Unveiling the Layers of History

When it comes to uncovering the secrets of the past, air photography is an invaluable tool that offers a bird’s-eye view of archaeological sites and their surrounding landscapes. Whether taken by satellite, drone, or traditional aircraft, aerial photographs allow researchers to examine sites from unique perspectives, providing insights that cannot be easily obtained from the ground. These aerial images offer not only a snapshot of the site itself but also a larger picture of its context within the surrounding landscape—revealing connections to other sites, patterns, and relationships that may have been overlooked.

In this article, we explore the various methods of obtaining air photos, the benefits of using them, and why it’s essential to gather as many images from different periods as possible to create a detailed and comprehensive understanding of a site.

Why Air Photos Matter

Aerial photographs give archaeologists the opportunity to examine a site in its broader context—how it interacts with the landscape, nearby structures, and other historical features. They offer several key advantages:

Broader Context: Air photos allow you to see not only the site itself but also its relationship to the surrounding area. This can include proximity to rivers, roads, other archaeological sites, and natural features that might have influenced its location and function.

Site Discovery: Sometimes, features that are invisible from the ground, such as buried walls, ancient roadways, or ditches, can be revealed through differences in vegetation, soil, or topography that show up in aerial imagery.

Temporal Insights: By having air photos taken from different time periods, you can trace changes in the landscape over time, identify phases of occupation, and monitor the site’s transformation. This makes it essential to gather as many images from as many periods as possible—capturing not just the site itself but also how it has evolved within its environment.

Landscape Analysis: Aerial imagery can help archaeologists map out entire regions, showing how different sites and features are interconnected. This can provide clues about trade routes, regional patterns of settlement, and the broader structure of ancient landscapes.

Methods of Obtaining Air Photos

There are several ways to capture aerial photographs, each with its own benefits and applications. The most common methods include satellite imaging, drone photography, and traditional aircraft-based aerial photography.

Satellite Imagery: Satellite-based photography is often the most widely available and cost-effective method for obtaining air photos. Satellites provide high-resolution images of large areas, offering a comprehensive view of regions. These images are particularly useful for covering large archaeological sites or whole landscapes at once. The disadvantage is that the resolution may not be as high as that from drones or aircraft, but they provide valuable long-term coverage of an area.

Drone Photography: Drones have become an essential tool in modern archaeology, providing a flexible and cost-effective way to capture high-resolution images of specific sites. Drones are particularly useful for documenting smaller areas with great detail, allowing for the capture of aerial images from various angles and heights. They can be flown in low altitudes, providing the ability to focus on specific features and capture detailed imagery that satellite photos may miss.

Traditional Aerial Photography (Plane-based): Traditional plane-based aerial photography offers the advantage of covering large areas with a consistent perspective and high resolution. Pilots can fly at low altitudes to capture detailed images of a specific site, or they can take long-distance shots from higher altitudes for a broader view of the landscape. This method is often used for archaeological surveys, landscape analysis, and when precision in imagery is needed. The main disadvantage is the cost and logistical challenges of arranging flights, but the results are often unparalleled in terms of clarity and coverage.

The Benefits of Long-Distance Aerial Shots

In addition to low-altitude shots that focus on a site’s details, long-distance aerial photography taken from high peaks or surrounding mountains offers significant advantages:

Overview of the Region: From higher altitudes, you can capture expansive images that provide a holistic view of a site’s environment, showing not just the site itself but also its relationship with the landscape. This broader perspective is essential for understanding the site’s position in relation to natural resources, strategic locations, and trade routes.

Contextualizing the Site: Long-distance shots from high surrounding peaks help researchers see how a site fits into the larger topography—revealing important environmental factors such as proximity to water sources, defensive positions, or important cross-roads. These long-distance photos often reveal patterns of human settlement that might be invisible in smaller, localized images.

Landscape Evolution: Higher altitude shots provide a clearer understanding of the changes in the landscape over time. They can show the evolution of the surrounding environment and reveal how the landscape itself may have influenced the development or decline of the site.

Building a Picture Over Time

To gain the most complete understanding of a site and its surrounding landscape, it’s important to use air photos from multiple time periods. Changes in the landscape, construction of new roads, the growth or loss of vegetation, and even the impact of human activity over time can be traced using historical aerial images.

By combining historical air photos with modern ones, archaeologists can document the transformation of the area, uncover patterns that might not be visible otherwise, and uncover layers of history that span centuries. The ability to compare past and present photos provides a dynamic way to explore the long-term impacts of human activity on the landscape.

Your Aerial Adventure

Incorporating air photos into your exploration of local archaeology offers a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of the landscape and its history. Whether you’re looking at ancient sites, investigating hidden features, or simply appreciating the natural beauty around you, aerial images provide a wealth of information that can transform your study into an adventure. The relationship between the site and its surroundings becomes clearer, and each image adds another layer to the ongoing story of the land.

Further Resources on Air Photography and Aerial Mapping

  1. USGS Earth Explorer (Earth Explorer): Offers access to satellite imagery and aerial photos, with datasets covering several decades. A great resource for historical imagery and topographical maps.
  2. National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) (NAPP): Provides aerial imagery of the United States for use in environmental and archaeological studies.
  3. UK Aerial Photography (UK Aerial Photography): The National Archives offer access to historical aerial photos of the UK, which can be used to explore changes in the landscape over time.
  4. Historic England: Aerial Photo Collections (Historic England): Historic England provides access to their archive of aerial photography, which is particularly useful for historical and archaeological research.
  5. Google Earth Engine (Google Earth Engine): Provides satellite imagery and aerial photography from multiple time periods, which can be accessed through their platform for free or with a subscription.

By exploring these resources and methods, you’ll have access to a wealth of aerial imagery that can enrich your understanding of local archaeology and the historical landscape. The combination of different types of air photos—whether satellite, drone, or plane-based—gives you a unique perspective on the world around you, one that allows you to explore both familiar and unknown landscapes from a whole new angle.

Key Feature Markings in Air Photography: A Beginner’s Guide

Aerial photography is a powerful tool for uncovering hidden features in the landscape, many of which are invisible or difficult to spot from the ground. Here’s a summary of the key types of markings and features that air photos can reveal, providing clues for those starting to explore the history of the land:

Parch Marks:

What They Are: Parch marks occur when differences in moisture levels in the soil—often due to the presence of buried structures like walls, ditches, or foundations—create variations in vegetation growth. These marks appear as distinct, often dark, patches of grass that are more stressed or withered compared to surrounding areas.

Why They Matter: Parch marks are particularly visible during dry conditions or in the summer months, when the buried features alter the moisture content of the soil, leading to visible differences in the plant life above them.

Shadow Marks:

What They Are: Shadows are cast by raised or sunken features on the ground, such as mounds, walls, or buried structures. In the right light conditions, shadows can highlight subtle variations in the topography that might not be visible from the ground.

Why They Matter: Shadow marks can reveal the contours of ancient earthworks, buildings, or other structures that have long since eroded or been obscured by vegetation. These marks are best seen during low sun angles, such as early morning or late afternoon, when shadows are long and dramatic.

Soil Marks:

What They Are: Soil marks are changes in soil color or texture caused by the presence of buried archaeological features. These marks are often visible when there are slight differences in soil composition that alter how the ground responds to rain, leading to changes in color or texture.

Why They Matter: Soil marks can indicate the presence of buried ditches, roads, walls, or even features like hearths. In some cases, these marks might also highlight the boundaries of ancient fields or settlement areas.

Crop Marks:

What They Are: Crop marks are variations in the growth patterns of crops caused by the presence of underlying features such as walls, pits, or foundations. These marks are typically visible in fields with crops like cereals, where different soil types (or disturbance by ancient structures) result in varied growth rates.

Why They Matter: Crop marks can reveal the outlines of buildings, roads, or other man-made features that are buried beneath the soil. They are particularly useful for identifying ancient settlement patterns, fortifications, and other large-scale structures.

Linear Features:

What They Are: Linear features refer to straight lines or tracks visible in aerial imagery, often indicating the remains of ancient roads, pathways, or boundaries. These lines might appear as subtle depressions or raised areas in the landscape, depending on the type of feature.

Why They Matter: Linear features can indicate ancient transport routes, boundary markers, or other man-made structures that once shaped the landscape. They can often be traced across wide areas and connected to other archaeological sites, revealing the larger network of human activity.

Geometric Patterns:

What They Are: Geometric patterns refer to regular, often symmetrical shapes visible in the landscape, such as circles, squares, or grid-like formations. These might indicate the layout of settlements, fields, or ritual sites.

Why They Matter: Geometric patterns can provide evidence of planned settlements, agricultural fields, or ceremonial areas. They help archaeologists understand how ancient societies organized their spaces and activities.

Jan 22

Guide – Exploring the Past with LIDAR

A scene showing a Roman archaeologist in the field, holding a tablet displaying LIDAR data.
Exploring the Past with LIDAR: A Revolutionary Tool for Archaeology

Imagine being able to see the landscape around you in a completely new way—an invisible layer revealing the hidden structures of the past, right beneath the surface. This is the power of LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), a technology that has revolutionized archaeology and landscape studies. In this article, we’ll take a look at how LIDAR works, where to find LIDAR data, and how to interpret it to uncover the secrets of your local landscape.

What is LIDAR?

LIDAR is a remote sensing method that uses laser light to measure distances between a sensor and the Earth’s surface. The LIDAR sensor sends out rapid pulses of laser light, and by measuring the time it takes for these pulses to bounce back, the system can create incredibly accurate three-dimensional maps of the terrain.

This technology is particularly useful in archaeology because it allows researchers to “see through” dense vegetation and other obstructions. By scanning large areas from the air (usually via a plane or drone), LIDAR can reveal ancient structures, pathways, and other features hidden beneath the canopy or soil—features that would be nearly impossible to detect with traditional methods.

How Does LIDAR Work?

The basic process of LIDAR involves the following steps:

Emission of Laser Pulses: A laser is emitted from an aircraft or drone, directed towards the ground below.

Data Collection: The laser pulses bounce off the surface and return to the sensor. By measuring the time it takes for each pulse to return, LIDAR systems can calculate the distance between the sensor and the surface below.

Data Processing: The return time for each pulse is converted into highly detailed 3D point clouds, which represent the topography of the area. These point clouds can then be used to generate highly accurate digital elevation models (DEMs) or surface models.

Analysis and Visualization: These models can be further processed to reveal features like ancient structures, roads, and earthworks, offering archaeologists and researchers a clearer picture of past human activity.

Where Can You Access LIDAR Maps?

LIDAR data is often collected by government agencies, research institutions, and private companies. Thankfully, several free LIDAR mapping services allow public access to this valuable data. Below are a couple of resources where you can explore LIDAR data for your own area:

UK LIDAR Data Service (UK LIDAR Data): Managed by the UK Environment Agency, this service provides free access to high-resolution LIDAR data for England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It allows users to view and download data in various formats, which can be helpful for understanding the terrain and identifying archaeological sites.

OpenTopography (OpenTopography): OpenTopography is an international platform that offers free access to LIDAR datasets from across the globe, including many archaeological regions. The site provides downloadable data for creating DEMs and other visual models, enabling users to view topography in more detail.

Differences Between the Services

Both of these LIDAR mapping services offer free access to LIDAR data, but there are a few differences to consider:

Coverage Area: The UK LIDAR Data Service focuses specifically on the UK, while OpenTopography offers datasets from various countries around the world. If you’re interested in a global scope or specific international sites, OpenTopography might be your best choice.

Data Access and Usability: UK LIDAR allows for direct access to high-resolution data files that can be easily imported into GIS software, while OpenTopography offers a user-friendly interface for visualizing the data before downloading. If you’re new to LIDAR mapping, OpenTopography’s interactive map can be a great way to explore the data visually before downloading raw datasets.

How to View Your Own Area on LIDAR

Now that you have access to LIDAR data, you can start exploring your local area. To get started:

Visit the LIDAR Service Website: Go to either the UK LIDAR Data Service or OpenTopography, depending on your region.

Search for Your Location: Enter the location you’re interested in (e.g., your town, village, or any region of archaeological interest) into the search bar or use the map interface to navigate to your area.

Select Data Layers: Many platforms will allow you to overlay different layers, such as terrain models or vegetation indices. You can often choose between raw elevation data or more processed versions, such as shaded relief maps, which can help bring the features of the landscape to life.

Explore the Data: Once you’ve located your area, zoom in and start examining the terrain. You might begin to notice subtle features—like circular depressions, straight lines, or embankments—that could be clues to ancient settlements, roadways, or other archaeological features. These features are often hidden to the naked eye but come to life in the LIDAR data.

How to Interpret What You’re Seeing

Interpreting LIDAR data requires a bit of practice, but here are some general tips for reading the maps:

Elevation Models: Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) can show the height of the terrain. Areas that are more elevated, such as hills or mounds, may indicate the presence of ancient structures, burial mounds, or defensive earthworks.

Point Clouds: The point cloud representation shows the distribution of laser points on the surface. Look for patterns in the density and clustering of points, which may hint at man-made features. For example, straight lines may indicate roads, walls, or boundary markers.

Shaded Relief Maps: These maps provide a more visually accessible way to view the landscape’s features. Shadows are used to accentuate changes in elevation, making it easier to spot features such as ditches, mounds, or roads that may have been built by past societies.

Encouraging Your Own Adventure

By using LIDAR, you’re not just looking at a map—you’re uncovering a hidden world that’s waiting to be discovered. It’s like stepping into the shoes of an archaeologist or explorer, finding clues to our shared history right in your own backyard. Even if the terrain seems unremarkable at first glance, LIDAR can reveal the subtle traces of human activity that lie just beneath the surface.

So, grab your binoculars, explore the hidden topography of your area, and let the journey of discovery begin. Who knows what ancient roads, forgotten ruins, or hidden villages might be waiting to be uncovered?

Professional LIDAR Services: Unlocking Precise 3D Mapping

While free LIDAR mapping services provide a fantastic entry point for exploring the landscape, professional LIDAR services offer higher-resolution data, more advanced processing capabilities, and tailored solutions for complex archaeological or geographical projects. These services are often used by research institutions, governments, engineering firms, and private companies to gather highly accurate data over large areas. Professional LIDAR services also allow for more precise interpretation of the data, particularly in environments that require specialized expertise.

How Professional LIDAR Services Work

Professional LIDAR services typically involve the following process:

Data Collection: Professional LIDAR data is typically collected by aircraft or drones equipped with LIDAR sensors. These sensors emit laser pulses and record the time it takes for them to return, measuring the distance to the ground below. Data is collected for both the surface and vegetation layers, allowing for detailed topographic mapping.

Point Cloud Processing: After data collection, the LIDAR point clouds (3D data points) are processed and cleaned to create digital elevation models (DEMs), which can then be used to generate 3D models of the terrain. These models can include both visible and subsurface features, depending on the capabilities of the LIDAR system used.

Customized Data Output: Professional services often offer more advanced post-processing and analysis options, including tailored visualizations, contour maps, and 3D terrain models, specifically designed for archaeological, environmental, or engineering needs.

Project-Specific Analysis: With professional LIDAR services, you can get more accurate and detailed analysis, such as feature identification, vegetation analysis, or flood risk assessment. In archaeology, this can mean uncovering subtle earthworks, hidden structures, or ancient pathways that would be otherwise invisible to the naked eye.

Popular Professional LIDAR Services

Here’s a list of resources and services that provide professional LIDAR data and technology. These services are often tailored to specific industries, and they typically require purchasing or contracting services for data collection and analysis:

Riegl LIDAR (Riegl LIDAR): Riegl is a leader in the field of professional LIDAR systems and sensors. They offer a wide range of LIDAR solutions for terrestrial, airborne, and mobile mapping applications. Their systems are used in topographic surveys, archaeology, forestry, and environmental studies.

Leica Geosystems (Leica Geosystems): Leica offers a broad range of professional LIDAR systems and services. They specialize in high-precision, 3D data collection for industries such as construction, mining, and archaeology. Leica provides both hardware for LIDAR collection and software tools for data processing and analysis.

Optech (Teledyne) (Optech): Optech, now part of Teledyne, provides advanced LIDAR systems for airborne and terrestrial mapping. Their products are used for applications ranging from archaeology and forestry to floodplain mapping and environmental monitoring.

Topcon Positioning Systems (Topcon Positioning Systems): Topcon offers LIDAR systems that are suitable for a wide range of mapping projects, including those in the civil engineering and infrastructure sectors. Their solutions include airborne, mobile, and ground-based LIDAR systems.

Surdex Corporation (Surdex): Surdex provides professional LIDAR mapping services, offering high-resolution data collection for industries such as mining, forestry, and land development. They provide both LIDAR data collection and processing services tailored to their clients’ needs.

Quantum Spatial (Quantum Spatial): A provider of geospatial solutions, Quantum Spatial specializes in high-accuracy LIDAR data collection and analysis for government agencies, environmental monitoring, and infrastructure planning. They are known for their expertise in applying LIDAR technology to large-scale mapping projects.

Aerometric (Aerometric): Aerometric provides airborne LIDAR data collection services for the environmental and natural resource sectors. They specialize in topographic and bathymetric LIDAR services, offering detailed mapping solutions.

3D Laser Mapping (3D Laser Mapping): 3D Laser Mapping offers both hardware and software solutions for LIDAR applications. They specialize in providing highly accurate data for mining, construction, archaeology, and urban planning projects.

Further Information and Resources

LIDAR 101: Introduction and Applications – An introductory guide on how LIDAR works, its applications, and industries that use it. Read here

LiDAR Technology Overview from NASA – A detailed explanation of LIDAR technology, how it’s used in Earth sciences, and its contributions to environmental monitoring. Explore here

The LIDAR Magazine – A publication dedicated to LIDAR news, technologies, and trends in the geospatial industry. Visit here

LIDAR News – Another valuable resource for LIDAR news, case studies, and technology developments. Visit here

LIDAR is a powerful tool, and with these resources, you can explore how professional services can be used to create high-precision maps and models for your specific needs. Whether you’re involved in archaeology, environmental studies, or simply interested in understanding the landscape in new ways, these professional LIDAR services can unlock a wealth of information hidden beneath the surface.

Jan 22

Guide – Landscape Archaeology: The Geological Environment of Britain

The Geological Environment of Britain: The Foundation of Our Landscape

The landscape of Britain has been shaped by millions of years of geological processes. From the formation of ancient mountain ranges to the shaping of valleys and river systems, the land we see today is the product of a dynamic and ever-changing history. Understanding the geology of Britain is essential for anyone interested in Landscape Archaeology, as it provides the foundational context for how human settlements and activities interacted with and were influenced by the physical environment.

In this section, we will explore the broad geological history of Britain, focusing on the major periods and events that have contributed to the landscape we observe today. You’ll find links to further resources throughout this text to deepen your understanding of the geology of Britain. We encourage you to explore these links for a more in-depth study of the region’s geological history.

The Geological History of Britain

The Precambrian Era (Before 541 Million Years Ago)

The geological story of Britain begins in the Precambrian Era, a time that stretches back billions of years. During this period, the land that would become Britain was part of the early continents. Rocks from this era, like the ancient rocks in the Scottish Highlands, provide evidence of the Earth’s earliest history. These rocks were formed in conditions far different from those we know today—through volcanic activity and the gradual formation of the Earth’s crust.

To learn more about these ancient rocks, you can explore the following resource:

  • The Geology of Scotland – A detailed resource from the Geological Society of London that covers Scotland’s geological history, including its Precambrian formations.

2. The Palaeozoic Era (541 – 252 Million Years Ago)

During the Palaeozoic Era, Britain was located near the equator, and the land was covered by shallow seas. This period saw the formation of many of the key rock layers that form the foundation of the landscape, including limestone, sandstone, and shale. The most notable event of this time was the formation of the Caledonian Mountain Range, which stretches from Scotland into parts of northern England. The impact of these mountains can still be seen in the rugged terrain of Scotland.

For further exploration of the Palaeozoic landscape, consider the following resource:

  • Palaeozoic Britain – A comprehensive overview of Britain during the Palaeozoic, focusing on its landscapes and geological features.

3. The Mesozoic Era (252 – 66 Million Years Ago)

The Mesozoic Era saw the rise of the dinosaurs and the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea. During this time, Britain was positioned on a shallow sea floor, where layers of sediment were deposited. The most famous feature of this period is the formation of the Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site in southern England, which is home to rich deposits of fossils and stunning cliff formations.

To learn more about the Mesozoic landscape, explore:

  • The Jurassic Coast – A detailed guide to the Jurassic Coast and its geology, fossils, and landscapes.

4. The Cenozoic Era (66 Million Years Ago – Present)

The most recent geological era, the Cenozoic, began with the cooling of the Earth’s climate and the shaping of the land by glaciation. The last Ice Age, which occurred about 12,000 years ago, had a dramatic impact on Britain’s landscape, shaping the valleys, hills, and coastal features we see today. Glacial deposits, including moraines and drumlins, are still visible in many parts of the country, and the legacy of the Ice Age continues to influence our landscape.

For a more detailed look at the impact of glaciation on Britain’s landscape, check out:

The Development of Britain’s Modern Landscape

The most recent geological period, the Quaternary (spanning the last 2.5 million years), saw the rise of glaciation and the formation of many of Britain’s modern landscapes. The action of glaciers carved out valleys, lakes, and river systems, while the retreat of ice led to the formation of features like the famous Lake District in northwest England.

In addition to the Ice Age, volcanic activity during the Cenozoic period, particularly in places like the Scottish Highlands, helped form parts of the current landscape. Over time, rivers like the Thames and the Severn have carved through the land, creating valleys and depositing sediment that forms the fertile soils of much of southern England.

For a deeper exploration of the modern landscape and the effects of glaciation, refer to:

  • The Geology of Britain – An introduction to the geology of Britain, including the processes that shaped the landscape in the Quaternary period.

Homework: Understanding the Geology of Your Local Area

Now that you’ve had an overview of the geological history of Britain, it’s time to get more specific and understand the geology of your local area. This exercise will help you connect the broader geological history to the land you live on and gain insight into the physical features that shape the landscape around you.

Step-by-Step Guide to Understanding the Geology of Your Local Area:

Identify Your Local Area:
First, determine your local area of interest. This could be your town, city, or any specific region in Britain that you are studying.

Access Geological Maps:
Use the British Geological Survey (BGS) to find a geological map of your area. The BGS offers detailed maps of rock types, geological features, and history.

BGS Geology of Britain Viewer – Explore interactive geological maps of Britain.

Study Local Bedrock and Surface Features:
Look at the types of rock found in your area. Are there signs of glacial activity? Are there any rivers or coastal features that may have shaped the landscape?

BGS Regional Geology

Look into the Impact of Glaciation:
If you live in an area that was affected by the Ice Age, check for glacial features like moraines or drumlins, which are common in places like northern England and Scotland.

Ice Age Geology

Research Local Geology in Detail:
Use local libraries, museums, or online resources to gather more information on the specific geology of your region. Local geological societies or university departments may also have useful publications.

Geology of Local Areas

Consider Human Interaction with the Landscape:
Once you understand the geological environment, consider how humans have interacted with this landscape. Were there settlements near rivers? Did ancient people use local materials for building?

Historic Geology and Human Impact

By completing this homework, you will not only gain a deeper understanding of the geology of your area but also connect the physical environment to human history and settlement patterns. Understanding local geology will enhance your ability to interpret the broader landscape of Britain and see how the past was shaped by both natural forces and human decisions.

Jan 22

Guide – What is Landscape Archaeology?

What is Landscape Archaeology?

Landscape Archaeology is the study of past human interaction with the natural environment. It focuses on understanding how ancient societies perceived, organized, and shaped the land they inhabited, revealing the relationships between people, their settlements, and the broader landscape in which they lived. Unlike traditional archaeology, which often focuses on individual sites, artifacts, or time periods, Landscape Archaeology looks at the wider environment and how it influenced the location and function of monuments, settlements, roads, fields, and other cultural features.

The concept of Landscape Archaeology emerged from the recognition that human activity was not just confined to single sites, but was interconnected with the land around them. The physical geography—whether it was the positioning of a settlement along a river, the strategic location of a fort on high ground, or the alignment of ritual sites with celestial events—played a central role in how ancient societies structured their lives. Landscape Archaeology seeks to reveal how these factors shaped social, political, and economic practices, offering a more holistic view of the past.

The History and Development of Landscape Archaeology

The roots of Landscape Archaeology can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, although it began as a more general interest in studying the environment’s influence on human settlements. Early archaeologists and historians recognized that landforms, climate, and other physical features were significant in shaping the way people lived and interacted with the environment, but the field itself did not take shape until the mid-20th century.

Early Developments: The Beginnings of Landscape Thinking

In the 19th century, archaeologists such as Sir Mortimer Wheeler and Sir Leonard Woolley began to note the importance of landscape features when investigating ancient sites. They focused on topography and the positioning of settlements in relation to natural resources, but their methods were still largely descriptive rather than analytical.

During this time, the concept of cultural landscapes—environments shaped by human activity—began to take root. While early archaeologists had a focus on individual monuments or objects, they began to recognize that these were part of broader systems that integrated with the natural environment. However, Landscape Archaeology as a formal discipline didn’t fully emerge until the 1960s and 1970s.

The Emergence of Modern Landscape Archaeology

The 1960s saw the rise of the “New Archaeology” movement, which advocated for more scientific and systematic approaches to archaeology, incorporating environmental and geographical data into the study of past societies. Archaeologists like David L. Clarke and Christopher Tilley began to push for a more analytical approach to understanding the landscape. They recognized that sites and artifacts did not exist in isolation, but were part of a dynamic relationship between human societies and their environments.

During this period, technological advancements in aerial photography, GIS (Geographical Information Systems), and remote sensing revolutionized the study of landscapes. The ability to observe and map landscapes from the air opened up new opportunities for identifying ancient sites and studying their spatial relationships in ways that were previously impossible.

The Rise of Landscape Studies in Archaeology

By the 1980s and 1990s, Landscape Archaeology had firmly established itself as a sub-discipline within archaeology. Researchers began to develop theoretical frameworks that emphasized the active role of the landscape in shaping cultural practices. Scholars like Timothy Ingold and Ian Hodder promoted the idea that the landscape was not merely a passive backdrop to human activity but an active and symbolic component of social life. This approach focused on how people perceived and engaged with the landscape, understanding it as a place that influenced their daily routines, rituals, and social structures.

During this period, Landscape Archaeology also took on a more interdisciplinary approach, blending methods from geography, anthropology, history, and environmental science. By incorporating diverse perspectives and new technologies, Landscape Archaeology became an increasingly sophisticated tool for understanding past human societies.

The Integration of Digital Tools and Remote Sensing

The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw significant advances in the tools and technologies used in Landscape Archaeology. Remote sensing technologies, including LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), radar, and aerial photography, became widely used. These tools allowed archaeologists to map large areas quickly and in great detail, revealing previously unknown features such as buried structures, roads, and agricultural systems.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have also become a cornerstone of modern Landscape Archaeology, allowing researchers to layer different types of data—such as topography, vegetation, climate, and archaeological features—onto one digital map. This enables archaeologists to analyse spatial relationships between different features of the landscape and to model how past people may have interacted with their environment.

Landscape Archaeology Today: A Holistic Approach

Today, Landscape Archaeology continues to evolve, combining traditional fieldwork with cutting-edge technology. Scholars now study landscapes as dynamic systems, emphasizing the ongoing interaction between humans and their environments. They recognize that landscapes are not just static features, but are constantly changing through time due to both natural processes (like erosion and climate change) and human activities (such as farming, settlement, and monument construction).

Landscape Archaeology now encompasses a range of methods, including:

  • Field Surveys: Systematic walks across a landscape to identify, record, and map features that can reveal past human activity.
  • Geophysical Surveys: Using instruments to detect subsurface features, such as walls or ditches, that might not be visible on the surface.
  • Aerial Photography: Examining photographs taken from above to identify landscape features and patterns.
  • Remote Sensing: Using technologies like LIDAR and radar to detect hidden features beneath the surface of the earth.
  • GIS and Spatial Analysis: Analysing spatial relationships between archaeological sites, monuments, and natural features.

The Importance of Landscape Archaeology in Iron Age Studies

For sites from the Iron Age and earlier, Landscape Archaeology is particularly important because it provides a more comprehensive view of how societies interacted with their environment. This period saw significant developments in the way people organized and utilized land—whether for defence, farming, religious rituals, or trade. Landscape Archaeology helps us understand how sites were deliberately situated in relation to natural features and how people may have manipulated the landscape for social, cultural, or economic purposes.

In the following articles, we will apply these methods to the landscape of the Thornborough Henges as a case study, examining how the alignment of these prehistoric monuments, their placement in relation to rivers, and the surrounding topography all contribute to our understanding of their use and significance.

Conclusion: Understanding the Landscape, Understanding the Past

Landscape Archaeology provides a powerful lens through which we can view the past. By studying how ancient people interacted with and understood their landscapes, we gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures. As a discipline, it emphasizes the interconnectedness of human activity and the environment, revealing how the physical world shaped—and was shaped by—ancient societies.

With advancements in technology and interdisciplinary research, Landscape Archaeology is poised to continue shedding new light on the ancient world. Whether we are examining the placement of a single monument or the vast networks of ancient settlements, the landscape offers clues that help us better understand how our ancestors lived, thought, and interacted with their world.

Conceptual Development of Landscape Archaeology Links

The Conceptual Development of Landscape Archaeology
Link

Landscape and Power: Theoretical Approaches to Landscape Archaeology
Link

The Social Construction of Landscapes in Archaeology
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The Role of Landscape in Ancient Societies: A Conceptual Review
Link

  1. Mapping the Landscape: A History of Landscape Archaeology
    Link

Jan 22

Guide – Landscape Archaeology Introduction

Introduction to Landscape Archaeology: Understanding the Terrain of the Past

 Unlike traditional archaeology, which often focuses on individual sites or artifacts, Landscape Archaeology takes a broader view—examining the way entire landscapes were organized, used, and perceived by past societies. This approach allows us to uncover connections between different sites, understand the spatial relationships within a region, and gain insights into the environmental and social dynamics of ancient peoples.

In this series of articles, we will delve into the key concepts and methods used in Landscape Archaeology, with a special focus on the landscapes of the Iron Age and earlier periods. We will explore how the natural landscape, the positioning of monuments, and the use of features like water sources, roads, and fields all play a part in shaping human activity and culture.

Why Landscape Matters in Prehistoric Archaeology

For societies in the Iron Age and earlier, the landscape was not just a backdrop to daily life—it was a central component of how they understood the world. The placement of forts, settlements, burial sites, and sacred spaces was deeply influenced by the physical characteristics of the land. The topography, visibility, and accessibility of certain locations would have played a crucial role in decisions about where to build and why.

For example, many hillforts in Britain were placed on high ground, offering strategic advantages for defence and surveillance. Similarly, ancient ritual sites like henges or stone circles were often positioned in relation to important natural features such as rivers, mountains, or solar alignments, creating powerful symbolic connections between the landscape and the people who inhabited it.

In this context, Landscape Archaeology becomes a way to decode the interaction between people and their environment, revealing not just how ancient sites were used, but also how they were understood by those who lived in and around them.

Thornborough Henges: A Case Study in Landscape Interpretation

Throughout this series, we will use the Thornborough Henges, a remarkable prehistoric site in North Yorkshire, as an example to demonstrate some of the fundamental methods of Landscape Archaeology. The Thornborough Henges, consisting of three large earthworks arranged in a line, are a prime example of how the landscape was deliberately shaped for ritual purposes. The site is not just a collection of isolated monuments but part of a wider landscape network, where the positioning of the henges, their relationship to other features like nearby rivers, and their alignment with the surrounding topography tell a story of cultural and ceremonial significance.

By examining the Thornborough Henges, we will explore various methods used in Landscape Archaeology, such as:

  • Site Surveying and Mapping: Understanding the spatial relationships between different sites and features in the landscape.
  • Topographical Analysis: Analysing how the physical landscape influenced the placement and function of monuments.
  • Photographic Research:
  • Documentation Search and Analysis:
  • Fieldwalking and local research:
  • Geophysical Surveys: Using modern technology to uncover hidden structures or patterns that may not be visible on the surface.
  • Visual and Symbolic Connections: Studying how monuments were deliberately placed to be visible from certain vantage points, or to align with celestial events.

As we move through the series, we will consider how these methods can be applied to other Iron Age and earlier sites, helping us to interpret not just what the landscape looked like, but how it was experienced, understood, and manipulated by the people who lived within it.

The Landscape of the Past: A Journey of Discovery

The landscape of the Iron Age and earlier is rich with history, but much of it remains hidden beneath the surface. Through Landscape Archaeology, we can uncover these secrets, revealing how people lived, thought, and interacted with their surroundings. By applying these methods and considering the landscape as a living, breathing component of human culture, we gain a deeper understanding of the past—and, ultimately, of ourselves.

Join us as we begin this journey into the landscape of the past, starting with the fascinating case of the Thornborough Henges. Through careful observation, innovative techniques, and a deeper appreciation for the environment, we will see how Landscape Archaeology offers a window into the lives of our prehistoric ancestors, shedding new light on the world they inhabited.

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Jan 21

Guide – Empathic Archaeology: Building a Strong Straw Man

An object that appears entirely different depending on the perspective of the observer

Empathic Archaeology: Building a Strong Straw Man

Question Everything and Question Again

When engaging in Empathic Archaeology, the process of creating and refining a straw man—a provisional model of the past—requires a delicate balance of imagination and rigor. The archaeologist’s imagination fills the skeleton of the straw man with ideas and concepts, but these must be constantly tested and re-tested to ensure that they stand on solid ground. This means that the process of creation isn’t just about filling a void, but about applying the highest degree of scrutiny to every “component” of the model. This is where the principle of “question everything”—and then “question it again”—becomes essential.

In the world of research, as in life, it’s easy to let assumptions slip into our models unnoticed. These assumptions, if left unchecked, can grow into distracting fantasies that steer us away from the truth. To build a strong, resilient straw man, the archaeologist must continuously challenge their own thinking. This constant process of questioning ensures that each piece of evidence placed within the model is as close to the truth as possible, and that the model can withstand the rigors of further exploration and scrutiny.

Ensuring Stability: The Need for Strong Foundations

A straw man, by nature, is inherently vulnerable—it is a skeletal structure made of loosely connected pieces, and without the right foundation, it can easily fall apart. As researchers, we must ensure that the foundation of our model is built on the most reliable and well-supported evidence available. If we do not build on strong foundations, the straw man will not stand under the weight of critical questioning, and it will collapse when new evidence is introduced.

The aim is not to create a “perfect” model but to create one that has enough stability to allow for new ideas to grow within it. This is the essence of the scientific method in archaeology: to build a working hypothesis (the straw man), test it rigorously, and adjust it based on new evidence. By doing so, we create a framework that can evolve over time and withstand the scrutiny of critical thinking.

Rules for Ensuring Strength and Certainty

To ensure that each piece of evidence is stable within our straw man, we must establish a set of rules for evaluating and questioning evidence. These rules will help guide our decision-making and ensure that we do not fall prey to biases, assumptions, or faulty reasoning.

Source Evaluation: Where Does the Evidence Come From?

  • Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Always prioritize primary sources—direct evidence from the past, such as inscriptions, artifacts, or sites—over secondary sources, which may involve interpretations or extrapolations from other researchers.
  • Expertise of the Source: Consider the credibility of the source. Is the evidence coming from a respected researcher or institution? Was the work peer-reviewed or subject to rigorous scrutiny?
  • Cultural Context: Understand the context in which the evidence was created. Was it shaped by cultural, political, or social biases? Consider the time, place, and people involved in producing the evidence.

Consistency and Corroboration: Does the Evidence Align with Other Data?

  • Corroboration Across Different Sources: Seek out multiple sources that support the same evidence. Corroboration across different methods or types of evidence (e.g., written records, physical artifacts, and environmental data) increases the reliability of the data.
  • Internal Consistency: Ensure that the evidence itself is coherent and does not contradict itself. For example, if an inscription suggests a particular ritual, but the material culture contradicts that interpretation, the evidence may need further scrutiny.

Probability and Likelihood: How Certain Can We Be?

  • Likelihood vs. Certainty: Recognize that archaeological evidence rarely offers 100% certainty. Instead, we often deal with probabilities. Assess how likely the interpretation of the evidence is, and be open about the uncertainty. For example, it might be 80% likely that an artifact served a ritualistic purpose based on its context, but we must acknowledge that there’s still room for other interpretations.
  • Strength of Evidence: Different types of evidence carry different weights. A well-preserved inscription is typically more reliable than a fragmentary pottery shard, though both can provide valuable insights. Always weigh the quality and quantity of evidence.

Continuous Testing and Re-evaluation: Does the Evidence Hold Up Over Time?

  • Question Everything: No piece of evidence should be taken for granted. Even well-established facts should be questioned periodically. New discoveries or advancements in technology may provide new insights or challenge old interpretations.
  • Re-questioning: Once evidence is placed into the straw man, test it again. How well does it fit within the emerging model? Is it stable when new evidence is added, or does it create inconsistencies? If new evidence contradicts an element of the model, be willing to discard or revise that element.

Bias and Assumption: Are We Blind to Our Own Prejudices?

  • Personal Bias: Be aware of your own biases—whether cultural, ideological, or professional. These biases can shape the way evidence is interpreted or how certain pieces of evidence are prioritized. To minimize bias, actively seek out alternative perspectives or interpretations.
  • Confirmation Bias: Avoid the trap of only seeking evidence that supports your existing model. Actively look for evidence that challenges your assumptions, and be willing to adjust your model if the evidence doesn’t fit.

Transparency: Are We Honest About What We Know and Don’t Know?

  • Acknowledging Uncertainty: It’s important to be transparent about the gaps in our knowledge. When building a straw man, it’s okay to acknowledge that certain pieces of the model are speculative or provisional. This honest admission invites further investigation and helps prevent the model from becoming an unchallenged assumption.
  • Clear Documentation: Keep detailed records of the evidence, reasoning, and decisions made during the process. This not only helps track the evolution of the straw man but also ensures that the process is open to scrutiny by others.

The Fragility of the Straw Man: The Importance of Patience and Humility

The process of building and refining a straw man is an iterative one. It requires patience, humility, and a willingness to let go of ideas that no longer hold up. Just as Frankenstein’s monster was built from various pieces, a straw man model is a construction of disparate ideas and evidence. But the more thoroughly we question each piece of evidence, and the more rigorously we test our assumptions, the stronger the final model will be.

Each time a piece of the straw man model is re-questioned or revised, the archaeologist grows closer to a more accurate understanding of the past. This is the beauty of the process—the collapse of an idea is not a failure, but a necessary step toward deeper insight. With each re-evaluation, the model becomes more refined, more stable, and more reflective of the complexities of ancient cultures.

Conclusion: A Methodical Approach to Empathic Archaeology

The strength of any straw man in Empathic Archaeology depends on the quality of evidence it’s built upon. By questioning everything, testing ideas repeatedly, and ensuring that each component is as true as possible, archaeologists can build models that are resilient and capable of evolving. The rules for evaluating evidence—whether through assessing consistency, likelihood, bias, or transparency—allow the archaeologist to build a more accurate and nuanced model of the past, one that can withstand the rigors of further scrutiny and testing.

By embracing this method, archaeologists create not just a straw man, but a conceptual framework that serves as a tool for deeper understanding and greater empathy with the ancient peoples they study.

Jan 21

Guide – Empathic Archaeology: The Straw Man

A comic illustration representing the laying out of a 'straw man' in an archaeologist's mind.

Empathic Archaeology: Building and Breaking Straw Men for Deeper Understanding

“It’s like trying to psychoanalyse an imaginary alien in your mind, and hoping some of those wild ideas make sense out in the field”— A quote which beautifully encapsulates the challenge and creativity at the heart of Empathic Archaeology. It highlights the active imagination required to understand ancient peoples who may seem entirely foreign to us, and the constant process of refining or discarding our interpretations in response to new evidence.

At first glance, the idea of psychoanalyzing an “imaginary alien” might sound outlandish, but it perfectly mirrors the approach many archaeologists must take when trying to understand ancient cultures. These cultures are far removed from our own in time, and often in social structure, belief systems, and material culture. To bridge the gap between the modern researcher and these ancient peoples, we must use a form of active imagination, thinking creatively about how they might have thought, felt, and acted.

The Active Imagination in Archaeology: Building the “Straw Man”

The idea of building a “straw man” is a useful metaphor here. In the context of Empathic Archaeology, a “straw man” represents a provisional, imaginative model of the ancient people you are trying to understand. This model is, at its core, speculative and may be completely wrong—but it serves as a starting point for exploration. Just as a straw man is deliberately constructed to resemble an argument or concept that can later be tested and torn down, the empathic archaeologist creates a mental construct of the people or society they are studying, based on available evidence.

For example, when studying an ancient civilization, archaeologists might imagine their social structures, motivations, and worldview in the following way: “What might a member of this society have believed about life after death?” or “How might they have viewed their relationship with the natural world?” These speculative ideas, though speculative, are built upon data from artifacts, rituals, and ethnographic analogies. The archaeologist then tests these ideas against what they observe in the field.

This process of constructing an imaginative model—the “straw man”—is crucial for Empathic Archaeology. It’s a method of entering into the world of the ancient peoples, putting yourself in their shoes, and allowing the evidence to challenge and refine your understanding of their experiences.

The Value of the Straw Man: A Flexible Tool for Exploration

The key to this process is flexibility. Just as a straw man can be knocked down and rebuilt, so too can our understanding of the past be constantly revised as new evidence is uncovered. By using imagination to create a hypothetical model, archaeologists are giving themselves a conceptual framework through which to view the evidence. However, they must be open to the fact that this framework may collapse entirely once they test it against new data.

This is why Empathic Archaeology requires both creativity and intellectual humility. The creation of a straw man allows archaeologists to actively engage with the unknown, but the subsequent collapse of the model—when new evidence suggests a different interpretation—is equally important. Each time a model breaks down, a breakthrough is achieved, leading to a deeper understanding of the people being studied.

For example, early archaeologists studying ancient burial sites might have imagined that elaborate burial goods indicated an aristocratic social structure. However, as more evidence was uncovered, such as the presence of similar goods in the graves of people from different social classes, the original straw man (the idea of a strictly hierarchical society) would need to be adjusted. Perhaps the original idea of burial goods as status symbols was not entirely correct, and instead, the goods had symbolic or ritual significance, challenging and enriching the model.

The Importance of “Testing” the Straw Man in the Field

The fieldwork phase is where the true test of this imaginative process occurs. Just as a psychoanalyst might evaluate the validity of their theories by observing the patient, an archaeologist tests their models by examining the real, physical evidence. The “alien” analogy helps highlight the complexity here. When you’re attempting to understand a culture so distant from your own, you’re, in a sense, studying a kind of “alien.” The ideas that come to mind may seem bizarre or far-fetched—much like those alien ideas—but they are grounded in the best available evidence at the time.

A hypothetical example could be the interpretation of ritual practices: archaeologists might create a model that suggests certain artifacts were used in sacred rituals, with the “alien” assumption being that these people were deeply spiritual. They might build this model based on certain types of pottery or ceremonial objects found in specific locations, and begin imagining how these artifacts might have been used in a ritual. But when they test this hypothesis, it could be refuted by new evidence, perhaps showing that the artifacts were used for practical purposes and had nothing to do with ritual. The collapse of this model then provides crucial insight—it’s not just a failure, but an opportunity to revaluate and build something more refined.

Imagination as a Tool for Empathy, Not Fantasy

It’s crucial to note that this imaginative process is not about making up wild, unfounded ideas or letting fantasy take over. The “alien” metaphor is not an invitation to indulge in pure speculation. Rather, it is a method of creative thinking that works within the boundaries of evidence. Empathy requires imagination, but that imagination is grounded in the data and informed by research. This is where critical thinking comes in: the need to remain vigilant about the limits of our models and to test them rigorously against new findings.

It is also essential to recognize the difference between empathy-based imagination and wishful thinking. Empathy in archaeology is about understanding a worldview from the inside out—not projecting our own desires or preferences onto ancient peoples. An archaeologist’s imagination is not a blank canvas but a tool for integrating diverse strands of evidence, historical context, and comparative analysis.

Why the Collapse of the Model is Crucial

The beauty of this process lies in the constant recalibration. Every time a hypothesis (or straw man) collapses, it refines the understanding and brings us closer to a more accurate representation of the ancient world. The collapse of a model isn’t a failure; it’s an essential part of the scientific method. Each failure exposes new questions, directs attention to overlooked data, and leads to new perspectives. This iterative process of creation and destruction is fundamental to developing a deeper understanding of the past.

For example, in the study of prehistoric art, an initial theory might be that cave paintings were created for ritualistic purposes. As new evidence from similar sites emerges, or as more precise analyses of the paintings are made (perhaps revealing that some caves were only used as temporary shelters or have no other signs of ritual activity), the hypothesis begins to break down. This forces researchers to think in new ways about the significance of the art, perhaps considering it as a means of communication or storytelling rather than a purely ritualistic practice.

Conclusion: Empathic Archaeology as a Dynamic Process

Empathic Archaeology is not a static process; it’s dynamic and constantly evolving. It requires the active imagination of researchers to build tentative models or straw men, but it also requires an openness to having those models tested, challenged, and even shattered. Every collapse of the model is an opportunity for a deeper breakthrough—a step closer to understanding the humanity of those who lived long ago.

By embracing this approach, archaeologists can continually refine their understanding of the past, driven by creativity, intellectual humility, and a commitment to uncovering the truth. It’s an iterative, imaginative, and rigorous process that bridges the gap between the present and the ancient world—one breakthrough at a time.

Jan 21

Guide – Empathic Archaeology Introduction

An archaeologist’s mind’s eye, representing the chaos of creation.

Empathic Archaeology: The Art of Understanding Ancient Cultures Through Their Eyes

Empathic Archaeology is the practice of immersing oneself in the worldview of the people being studied, allowing archaeologists and researchers to interpret artifacts, structures, and landscapes through the lens of the individuals who created or used them. This approach goes beyond the cold analysis of material culture—it strives to understand the emotions, motivations, and lived experiences of ancient peoples. While it is relatively straightforward to empathize with individuals from the more recent past, applying this empathy to distant cultures or ancient civilizations can be much more challenging.

The question then becomes: How do we, as modern researchers, create a mindset that allows us to genuinely “step into the shoes” of people from vastly different times and cultures, often with very little direct evidence of their emotions, thoughts, and daily lives?

Cultivating Open-Mindedness and Patience

Empathic Archaeology requires a deep openness to new ideas and experiences—something that is cultivated through curiosity and intellectual humility. It begins with accepting that we, as modern individuals, are not fully capable of understanding the ancient mind in its entirety. No matter how much evidence we uncover, we will never fully experience the world as ancient people did. The first step in empathizing is acknowledging our limitations and working within them.

As archaeologists, it is essential to approach ancient cultures with the mindset of an explorer, willing to sit with ambiguity and discomfort. We must allow ourselves the space to wonder about how ancient people might have thought, felt, and interacted with the world. This approach requires patience—patience with the material, with the archaeological process, and with the people we seek to understand. Empathy isn’t instantaneous; it’s built over time through careful observation and a willingness to challenge our assumptions.

For example, when excavating a site, instead of simply recording what was found and cataloguing it, an empathic archaeologist might pause to consider: Why did they place these objects here? What significance might they have attached to these items? How did they feel about them? This mindset can lead to richer interpretations, even if these interpretations remain speculative.

2. Immersion in the Context

One of the most important aspects of Empathic Archaeology is context—understanding the people and their environment within their specific historical, social, and geographical context. To empathize with ancient peoples, we need to think about their lives in a multi-dimensional way, considering factors like climate, politics, religious beliefs, and cultural norms that shaped their experiences.

For example, when studying a burial site, an empathic archaeologist wouldn’t just catalogue the grave goods and their symbolic meanings. They would also consider the cultural practices surrounding death: How did these people grieve? What was their relationship with the concept of the afterlife? Were the objects in the grave meant to ease the deceased’s journey, or were they symbols of the deceased’s status during their life?

To build this contextual understanding, it’s crucial to use all available sources of evidence. This could mean studying local mythology, ancient texts, and ethnographic parallels from cultures with similar practices. It also requires being attuned to the physical landscape, as the environment in which people lived played a significant role in shaping their beliefs, practices, and even emotions. By immersing oneself in the totality of the environment and lifestyle, empathy can be fostered for people who lived thousands of years ago.

3. Utilizing Comparative Methods and Ethnographic Analogy

When direct evidence is scarce, archaeologists often use ethnographic analogy—comparing past cultures with more recent or contemporary ones to infer behaviours, customs, and worldviews. Though this method has its limitations, it can help us build a model of how ancient peoples might have lived.

For example, modern indigenous cultures that have had minimal exposure to Western technology or social structures may provide insight into how ancient societies with similar technological and social conditions might have thought and acted. By studying the ways in which contemporary communities interact with their environment, engage in rituals, or form social hierarchies, archaeologists can begin to imagine the lived experience of people in the distant past.

However, it’s important to be careful with this approach. The risk of over-analogizing is always present. Cultures are dynamic, and just because a certain behaviour or belief exists in one contemporary society doesn’t necessarily mean it existed in the same way in an ancient one. It’s important to continually question and refine these analogies, always being aware of the cultural distance that exists between the present and the past.

4. Acknowledging Cultural Relativism

Empathy in archaeology is also closely tied to the concept of cultural relativism—the idea that we should strive to understand cultures on their own terms, rather than imposing modern values or standards onto them. In other words, we should refrain from judging ancient people based on our current moral or cultural frameworks.

An empathic archaeologist would ask, What values, beliefs, and social structures did these people hold dear? This approach can be especially challenging when studying cultures that engaged in practices that are controversial or seemingly foreign to us, such as human sacrifice or slavery. Understanding these practices within the context of the ancient worldview is essential to avoiding anachronistic judgments that may hinder empathy. For instance, a culture that practiced ritual sacrifice may have seen this act as a necessary way to maintain cosmic order, a belief system that differs greatly from modern concepts of morality and ethics.

By acknowledging cultural relativism, archaeologists can better avoid projecting modern biases onto the past. Instead of saying, “This was wrong,” an empathic archaeologist might say, “This was part of a different worldview, shaped by the specific historical and environmental challenges of their time.”

5. Building Emotional Connections Through Material Culture

Archaeology, by its very nature, involves working with material culture—artifacts, structures, and landscapes that people have left behind. These physical remnants offer a window into the past, but they also have the potential to elicit an emotional response. Artifacts, when considered as more than just objects, can become symbols of human lives, hopes, and struggles.

For example, when studying a tool or an ornament, an archaeologist might try to imagine the person who made it: What were they thinking when they crafted this object? What need did it fulfil? Did they hold a special significance for the person, or was it a commonplace item? This type of emotional engagement with material culture allows archaeologists to form a deeper connection with the past.

6. Applying Imagination and Storytelling

Finally, Empathic Archaeology involves a certain amount of creative thinking—using the imagination to weave together the evidence and create a narrative. This doesn’t mean fabricating stories, but rather allowing the evidence to inspire plausible reconstructions of past lives. The process of storytelling allows us to bridge the gap between the hard data and the human experiences that may have been involved.

For example, an archaeologist studying a residential site might imagine a day in the life of the people who lived there: What did their morning routine look like? How did they interact with the landscape? What kinds of rituals or social activities might they have participated in? By asking these questions and crafting plausible scenarios, archaeologists can deepen their understanding of the human experiences behind the material culture.

Conclusion: The Mindset of an Empathic Archaeologist

Creating a mindset that allows for Empathic Archaeology requires curiosity, patience, and an openness to imagining the lives of people who lived in worlds vastly different from our own. It involves combining critical analysis with emotional engagement and striving to understand ancient people on their own terms. The process is not always easy—especially when dealing with distant or unfamiliar cultures—but by using a combination of context, comparison, and cultural sensitivity, Empathic Archaeology allows us to form richer, more human-centred interpretations of the past. This approach can lead to more nuanced and meaningful discoveries and help ensure that the stories of ancient people are told with empathy, understanding, and respect.

Empathic Archaeology Links

  1. Empathic Archaeology: Understanding the Past through Empathy
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  2. The Role of Empathy in Archaeological Interpretation
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  3. Empathy in Archaeology: Bridging the Gap Between Past and Present
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  4. Archaeology and the Emotion: The Influence of Empathy in Ancient Studies
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  5. Reimagining the Past: Empathy and the Archaeological Process
    Link

Jan 21

Guide – Critical Thinking: Lack of Evidence Does Not Mean Evidence of Lack

A car broken down on the side of the road.

“Lack of Evidence Does Not Mean Evidence of Lack”: Critical Thinking and the Dangers of Assumed Knowledge

In archaeology, the phrase “lack of evidence does not mean evidence of lack” is an important reminder that the absence of proof does not necessarily prove something does not exist or did not happen. In fact, this statement touches on a subtle but pervasive issue in the field of research: the tendency for researchers—whether archaeologists, historians, or even students—to fill in gaps with assumptions. These assumptions often arise from biases, preconceived notions, or the overwhelming need to find patterns and explanations that make sense with the evidence we do have. However, this can lead to gaps in knowledge that become overlooked, misinterpreted, or even “brainwashed” into being accepted as truth.

The Brainwashing of Assumptions and Pattern Recognition

One of the key issues in critical thinking is recognizing that human brains are wired to seek patterns. It’s a survival mechanism: we look for connections between events or objects in order to predict outcomes. In archaeology, this can be a double-edged sword. While pattern recognition is vital for understanding the past, it can also lead to errors.

Let’s say an archaeologist is excavating a site and finds a series of objects that appear to form a pattern—such as pottery shards that align with a particular period of time. Based on this, they might begin to assume that they are dealing with a continuous or settled site. However, if the excavator doesn’t pause to question that assumption, they may overlook the possibility that the pottery could have been deposited at different times, or the area could have served multiple purposes over time. The mere lack of evidence for long-term habitation in this case doesn’t mean the evidence doesn’t exist; it might simply not have been found yet—or it could have been missed due to the narrow focus on certain types of evidence.

Critical thinking in this context requires the archaeologist to remind themselves: “What am I assuming, and why?” This means that we must always stay aware that our minds are conditioned to “fill in the blanks,” but doing so without acknowledging the gap can lead to flawed conclusions.

In a report, we would want to address these gaps openly: acknowledging what we know and, just as importantly, what we don’t know. For example, in the context of a field system, instead of assuming that the absence of a clear water source means it wasn’t a valid field system, a critical thinker would write something like, “While there is no immediate evidence of a water source within the field system, it is important to note that water sources could exist beyond the excavation area, or might have been integrated into a broader landscape system that has yet to be fully uncovered.”

Such an approach not only demonstrates transparency but also shows patience and humility in archaeological research. It provides a space for the “lack of evidence” to be questioned rather than dismissed too quickly. In turn, this gives future researchers the opportunity to come back to the site, explore new ideas, or take a fresh look at previously unconsidered data.

The Dangers of Overly Rigid Interpretation: Bias in the System

In academia, we can see these biases manifest in various forms, such as students who overly criticize their lecturers’ interpretations, or place too much emphasis on the interpretations of an outsider. In a university setting, this behaviour can be attributed to several factors, including the pressure of imposter syndrome or the feeling of needing to demonstrate superior knowledge. Students might feel compelled to point out flaws in established interpretations to prove their own competence or to differentiate themselves from the group.

While it’s important to critically evaluate the work of others, especially in archaeology, over-criticism can stifle the spirit of collaboration. Students might find themselves dismissing expert opinions too quickly, focusing on what they believe to be “mistakes” or inconsistencies, even if these are just natural complexities or areas where evidence is still inconclusive. This leads to unnecessary conflict and hinders productive learning and discovery.

Moreover, the sense of imposter syndrome—feeling like a fraud in a professional setting—often leads researchers to hide mistakes or avoid admitting to gaps in their knowledge. They may overlook errors in their own work or, in the case of historical omissions, fail to question when something is being left out of the record. The drive to “fit in” with the dominant scholarly narrative or avoid rocking the boat can lead to the perpetuation of gaps in knowledge. This is especially problematic when one field of research builds on the conclusions of another without critically re-examining the premises.

Consider the example of historical omissions: When early archaeologists or historians, operating under the assumptions of their time, ignored or omitted certain pieces of evidence because they didn’t align with the mainstream narrative—such as the role of women or lower-status individuals in ancient societies—it wasn’t necessarily a deliberate attempt to obscure the truth. Rather, it was due to the dominant narratives of the time, which themselves were influenced by cultural biases and a limited understanding of the past. This type of omission can have lasting effects on the academic field, as those gaps in knowledge remain unchallenged for generations.

A modern-day equivalent might be the dismissive attitude some scholars may have towards unconventional interpretations of archaeological sites—perhaps due to the assumption that new methods or technologies can’t uncover what older methods missed. But if researchers do not continually re-evaluate data and assumptions, these gaps can widen, leaving crucial insights out of the historical record.

A Real-Life Example: The Misunderstanding of Stonehenge’s Construction

One example of “lack of evidence” leading to flawed conclusions in archaeology is the initial misinterpretation of Stonehenge’s construction timeline. For many years, the dominant theory was that the stones were transported over long distances using primitive methods, but the “lack of evidence” for these methods meant that many archaeologists simply accepted that we would never know the exact process. However, new evidence and more critical thinking challenged this assumption. More recent excavations and geophysical surveys revealed that local quarries were used to source some of the stones, demonstrating that assumptions about the construction process were incomplete, not necessarily wrong.

The long-standing belief that the stones were moved by a single, mysterious method persisted largely because the evidence didn’t seem to fit alternative explanations. This reluctance to challenge a long-held theory led to many years of incomplete or misleading conclusions. In this case, archaeology benefited from being patient and revisiting prior assumptions.

The Call for Patience and Openness

For critical thinking to truly be effective in archaeology (and beyond), we must adopt the approach of considering the whole picture—acknowledging that our own thinking, our own patterns, may not always lead to the right answer. We must openly admit that some conclusions are not fully supported by evidence yet and that we may not have all the data we need. By taking the time to question our own assumptions, and the assumptions embedded in prior research, we open the door for a fuller understanding to emerge.

In summary, when discussing gaps in knowledge or the “lack of evidence,” critical thinkers must avoid filling those gaps too quickly with assumptions. Instead, they should embrace the unknown with humility and patience, recognizing that in archaeology—just as in life—answers are often not as simple as they appear at first glance. By doing so, we can avoid the brainwashing of conventional wisdom and make space for new, potentially revolutionary insights.

Jan 21

Guide – Using the best tools for research

A car broken down on the side of the road, with the driver holding a set of tools.

Using the best tools for research

For amateur researchers who don’t have access to extensive professional resources, there are still several methods and tools they can use to cross-check previous findings and apply a holistic approach. While they may never have access to every piece of data, they can still adopt strategies that lead to more accurate, well-rounded interpretations. Here are some practical approaches:

Use Open Access Academic Databases

Many research papers, articles, and datasets are available for free online. Some key resources include:

  • Google Scholar: A free search engine for academic papers. It allows users to find peer-reviewed articles, theses, and books. By looking at the references of key papers, amateur researchers can find related studies that may support or challenge the findings they are reviewing.
  • JSTOR (Free Access): JSTOR offers a free tier with access to some articles, especially older publications that might be useful for historical research.
  • DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals): A database of open-access scholarly journals that often include archaeological research.
  • Project MUSE: Another free access source for humanities and social sciences journals.
  • Archive.org: A digital library offering free access to millions of books, including historical texts and research papers.

By using these resources, amateur researchers can quickly cross-check prior findings and broaden their understanding by accessing a variety of viewpoints and research outcomes.

Use Crowdsourced Databases and Public Resources

There are many databases available online that provide free access to archaeological records, inscriptions, and materials:

  • The British Museum Collection Online: The British Museum offers a free online database with detailed descriptions and images of their collections, including items related to the Brigantes and other ancient cultures.
  • Digital Atlas of Roman and Medieval Civilizations: A map-based resource that helps users trace the history and geography of ancient and medieval civilizations, offering access to primary sources and archaeological sites.
  • Online Inscriptions Databases (e.g., Epigraphic Database): Some online databases specialize in inscriptions and provide free access to primary epigraphic data. For instance, the Epigraphic Database Heidelberg allows users to explore Roman inscriptions.
  • OpenStreetMap (OSM): A free mapping tool that can be used for historical landscape analysis by overlaying ancient roads, settlements, and geographical features. This can help situate archaeological finds in their broader landscape.

These resources provide a wealth of information that can help researchers cross-check findings and compare different sources.

Online Forums and Communities

  • Reddit: Subreddits like r/Archaeology, r/History, or r/AskHistorians can provide a platform for researchers to discuss their findings with experts and amateurs alike. These communities often have experienced individuals who are willing to offer insight or suggest alternative interpretations of data.
  • ResearchGate: A network where researchers from various fields share their work and discuss their findings. Many papers are available for free download, and you can directly ask questions from authors regarding their studies.
  • Academia.edu: Similar to ResearchGate, this platform allows researchers to share papers and collaborate with others. Many researchers upload their works for free access.

Cross-Referencing Inscriptions, Artifacts, and Iconography

One of the simplest ways to check previous findings is to look at iconography and artifacts related to the same period or culture. For example, if you’re studying an inscription like the one in Brigantia, you can cross-reference it with:

  • Images of similar statues or artifacts from the same period. Do they have consistent symbols or iconography? Is there a pattern of imperial representation that aligns with the inscription’s wording?
  • Other inscriptions: Cross-reference the wording with other inscriptions from the same region or similar contexts to see if there’s congruence in the language or titles used, like the IMP or AUG mentioned earlier.

This can be done by browsing online museum collections, as mentioned above, or by examining online repositories that document such items.

Applying the Holistic Approach in Practice

To apply a holistic approach when you don’t have all the data available:

  • Start with a wide search: Look at multiple sources for every piece of data you are examining, from different time periods and regions, not just those specifically related to your topic. This helps you avoid over-relying on a narrow set of conclusions.
  • Consider multiple perspectives: In archaeology, perspectives can differ based on cultural, regional, or temporal contexts. For example, an inscription that doesn’t mention a deity’s full name might still be important if its iconography indicates imperial power, as in the case of Brigantia.
  • Balance primary and secondary sources: While primary sources (like the inscriptions themselves) are crucial, don’t overlook secondary sources that provide analysis and context. However, always question the conclusions presented in secondary sources, especially if they don’t seem to fit with other data.
  • Ask the right questions: Constantly ask yourself, “Does this evidence fit with the broader context of the period or culture?” and “Am I ignoring any alternative explanations?”

Using Critical Thinking to Evaluate Sources

  • Check for Bias: Be aware of potential biases in both primary and secondary sources. Research conducted in different historical or cultural contexts may carry biases that influence interpretation. Always consider the author’s background, their research focus, and the political or cultural context of their work.
  • Consider the Source’s Publication Date: Research findings change over time. Earlier works might be outdated as new techniques, discoveries, or theories emerge. Always check if there are more recent publications or alternative viewpoints.

Tools for Visualizing and Organizing Data

Even without access to advanced tools, free software can help organize and analyse data:

  • Trello or Notion: These are project management tools that allow you to organize your findings and research in a way that’s easy to review and cross-check. You can create different boards for topics, and visually map out how evidence fits together.
  • Google Sheets or Excel: Simple but effective tools for creating databases, timelines, and cross-referencing data. Use these for creating comparative tables or keeping track of conflicting interpretations.
  • Gephi: A free tool for visualizing networks. This could be used to track relationships between different archaeological sites, people, or inscriptions.

In Conclusion

While amateur researchers may not have access to all professional tools, they can still employ these strategies to ensure a more holistic approach to archaeological research. By using freely available online resources, checking multiple data sources, and applying critical thinking, researchers can challenge prior assumptions and avoid relying on incomplete or biased conclusions. This approach allows them to build more nuanced, accurate interpretations, even with limited access to data.

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