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Celtic religions and beliefs
Celtic beliefs and superstitions
The Iron Age Celts, who flourished from around 700 BCE to 400 CE, held a polytheistic belief system with a pantheon of gods and goddesses. They believed in the sanctity of the natural world, with certain landscapes such as groves, springs, and river sources being considered sacred. These sites often housed temples and shrines where the druids, the priestly class, conducted rituals and sacrifices to appease the deities. The druids were central figures in Celtic society, revered for their wisdom and knowledge of the natural world and the mystical forces within it. They were responsible for religious ceremonies, divination, and the interpretation of omens, as well as maintaining the oral history of their people.
Sacrifice was a significant aspect of Celtic worship, with offerings ranging from valuable objects to animals and even humans, believed to ensure the favour of the gods. Weapons were also offered to the gods by casting them into bodies of water, which were seen as portals to the Otherworld. The human head was venerated, with the skulls of ancestors and enemies often kept for worship. The Celts saw supernatural forces in every aspect of nature, with celestial bodies like the moon, sun, and stars playing a crucial role in their belief system.
The Roman conquest and the spread of Christianity led to the decline of the Celtic religion. However, the legacy of their beliefs can still be seen in various cultural practices and folklore across regions that were once Celtic territories. The reverence for nature and the mystical, which characterized the Celtic belief system, continues to fascinate and influence people around the world today.
The Druids
The Druids were a high-ranking priestly class within ancient Celtic cultures, revered for their vast knowledge and authority in various domains of life. They were the intellectual elite, serving not only as religious leaders but also as legal authorities, adjudicators, lore keepers, medical professionals, and political advisors. The druids are believed to have been literate; however, they left no written records, possibly due to a doctrine that forbade it. Much of what is known about them comes from accounts by contemporaries from other cultures, such as the Romans and Greeks. The earliest references to the druids date back to the 4th century BC, with the most detailed early description by Julius Caesar in his “Commentarii de Bello Gallico” from the 50s BCE. Roman writers like Cicero, Tacitus, and Pliny the Elder also provided descriptions of the druids.
Following the Roman invasion of Gaul, the druid orders faced suppression under the Roman emperors Tiberius and Claudius in the 1st century CE and had vanished from the written record by the 2nd century. The term ‘druid’ resurfaces in historical records around 750 AD in a poem by Blathmac, who compared Jesus Christ favourably against the druids. In medieval tales from Christianized Ireland, such as “Táin Bó Cúailnge,” druids are often depicted as sorcerers resisting the advent of Christianity.
The revival of interest in Celtic culture during the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of fraternal and neopagan groups inspired by ancient Druidry, a movement known as Neo-Druidism. However, many modern conceptions of the druids are based on misconceptions from 18th-century scholars and have been largely revised by more recent studies. The etymology of the word ‘druid’ is derived from Latin ‘druidēs’ and is believed to originate from a native Gaulish word. The association of druids with oak trees, suggested by Pliny the Elder, has been questioned, and the term is now thought to mean ‘one with firm knowledge’ or ‘a great sage’.
In Iron Age Britain, life was deeply influenced by the druids. They were central figures in society, often holding more importance than the tribal leaders themselves. Druids could be both men and women, acting as healers, judges, and educators. They were believed to possess the ability to see into the future and were integral to the spiritual and religious life of the people. They led ceremonies, including animal and sometimes human sacrifices, and made offerings to the spirits, which were buried or cast into bodies of water. The druids were also responsible for the education of the youth, ensuring the transmission of their rich oral tradition and knowledge of the natural world, which was integral to the Celtic way of life.
The Iron Age was a period of significant development in Britain, with the introduction of iron tools greatly enhancing farming and leading to larger settlements. The society was structured around clans and tribes led by warrior kings, and the druids played a crucial role in maintaining the balance between the physical and spiritual aspects of life. Their influence extended beyond the spiritual realm into the daily lives of the Iron Age people, reflecting a culture that valued wisdom, knowledge, and harmony with the natural world. The legacy of the druids continues to fascinate and inspire people today, reflecting the enduring allure of these enigmatic figures who once held sway over ancient Celtic lands.
Druidic beliefs
The religious beliefs of the Druids, the learned class of the Ancient Celts, are not precisely known due to the lack of written records from the Druids themselves. However, it is widely accepted that they practised a form of polytheism, worshipping multiple deities who were closely associated with natural elements and phenomena. The Druids held a deep reverence for nature, seeing the divine in rivers, trees, stones, and the sky. This pantheistic view recognized the Earth itself as sacred, and they believed in the interconnectedness of all living things.
Druids also believed in an Otherworld, a realm beyond the physical, where spirits and deities resided. This belief in the afterlife was integral to their practices, which included rites of passage that symbolically represented death and rebirth. They celebrated seasonal festivals that marked significant transitions in the natural world, aligning their spiritual practices with the rhythms of the Earth.
The concept of animism was also central to Druidic belief, with the idea that all elements of the landscape, such as mountains or rivers, possessed spirits. Such beliefs likely influenced their practices of divination and use of omens, as they sought to understand and communicate with these spirits.
Druidic rituals often involved offerings and sacrifices, which could include animals or, according to some Roman sources, even humans, although this is debated among historians. These acts were meant to appease the deities and ensure balance and harmony within their communities.
The Druids’ role as mediators between the physical and spiritual worlds was reflected in their position as advisors to the tribal leaders, guiding them with their knowledge of the divine will as interpreted through omens and signs.
Tribal pantheons
The Iron Age in Britain was a period marked by the emergence of tribal societies, each with its own distinct cultural practices and belief systems. The pantheons of these tribes were diverse, often localized, and are understood primarily through archaeological findings and the accounts of Roman and Greek historians. The tribal societies were organized into groups ruled by chieftains, and their religious practices were deeply intertwined with their daily lives, reflecting a world where the natural and the supernatural were closely linked.
The Celts, who were the predominant cultural group during the British Iron Age, had a polytheistic belief system with over 400 deities, each associated with aspects of life and the natural world, such as rivers, warfare, and craftsmanship. These deities were not universally worshipped but were often venerated in specific regions or by particular tribes. For instance, the tribe known as the Brigantes, which was one of the most powerful tribes in Northern Britain, might have had a pantheon that included deities associated with their territorial lands and warfare, given their known military prowess.
Evidence suggests that the Iron Age Britons’ religious practices included offerings and sacrifices, which could range from valuable metalwork to human lives, as part of their rituals to appease or gain favour from their gods. Sacred spaces, such as groves, springs, and hillforts, played a significant role in their worship, serving as communal places for religious ceremonies and gatherings. The Druids, a class of priests, bards, and soothsayers, were integral to the religious life of the Celtic tribes, overseeing rituals and maintaining the oral traditions that conveyed religious lore.
The transition from the Iron Age to the Roman period brought significant changes to the tribal pantheons of Britain. As the Romans conquered and settled in Britain, they introduced their own gods and religious practices, leading to a syncretism where local deities were often equated with Roman gods, blending the two belief systems. This syncretization is evident in the archaeological record, where inscriptions and iconography show a fusion of Celtic and Roman religious symbols and deities.
The study of Iron Age tribal pantheons is complex due to the scarcity of written records from the period. Most of what is known comes from the interpretation of archaeological evidence, such as votive offerings, inscriptions, and sacred sites, as well as the writings of Roman authors who often had their own biases and agendas. Despite these challenges, the pantheons of the Iron Age tribes provide a fascinating glimpse into the spiritual life of ancient Britons, revealing a society deeply connected to its gods and the natural world. The reverence for these deities and the rituals performed in their honour reflect the tribes’ desires for harmony, protection, and prosperity within their communities.
Belief in Iron Age Brigantia
The Brigantes, an Iron Age tribe in Britain, are known to have worshipped a pantheon of deities that were deeply intertwined with their daily life and natural environment. The name ‘Brigantes’ itself is derived from the Proto-Celtic *brigant-, which means “high” or “elevated,” and is linked to the goddess Brigantia, who was likely one of the principal deities of the tribe. Brigantia, associated with sovereignty and the land, may have been venerated as a protector and provider, embodying the power and prestige of the tribe. The Brigantes’ religious practices would have been polytheistic, venerating various gods and goddesses that represented different aspects of life and nature.
Archaeological evidence, such as the Stanwick Horse Mask, suggests that horses were significant in Brigantian culture, possibly indicating a deity or deities associated with horses, warfare, or the sun. The lack of written records from the Brigantes themselves means that much of what is known comes from Roman sources and archaeological interpretations. The Romans, who conquered the Brigantes during the reign of Antoninus Pius around AD 155, documented some aspects of Brigantian society, but their accounts were often biased and incomplete.
The Brigantes’ religious practices likely included rituals and ceremonies conducted by druids, who were the intellectual elite and spiritual leaders of Celtic tribes. These ceremonies might have taken place in natural settings like groves or near bodies of water, which were considered sacred. Offerings of weapons, jewellery, and other valuables have been found in such locations, suggesting ritual deposits made to curry favour with or give thanks to the gods.
The Brigantes’ pantheon would have also included local deities unique to their tribe and region, reflecting the interconnectedness of their society with the specific landscapes they inhabited. The presence of votive offerings and the construction of shrines at sites like Aldborough, believed to be the Roman town of Isurium Brigantum, provide further evidence of religious activities.
While the full extent of the Brigantes’ pantheon remains a mystery, the fusion of archaeological findings and historical accounts paints a picture of a rich spiritual life that played a central role in the identity and governance of the tribe. The Brigantes, like many Celtic tribes, had a deeply animistic religion, seeing the divine in the natural world around them. This connection to the land and its spirits would have been fundamental to their world-view, influencing everything from their political structures to their art and warfare.
The Brigantes’ tribal pantheon in Iron Age Britain was a complex tapestry of deities and spiritual beliefs that were integral to their culture and society. While the specifics of many of these deities and practices are lost to time, the legacy of the Brigantes’ spirituality continues to intrigue and fascinate historians and archaeologists alike.
The Brigantes had a rich spiritual tradition with a pantheon that included various deities, although much of the specifics remain shrouded in the mists of history. Beyond Brigantia, who was a central figure in their worship, the Brigantes likely venerated gods and goddesses common to Celtic polytheism, each associated with aspects of nature, war, fertility, and sovereignty.
Given the widespread practice of syncretism during the Roman occupation, it is plausible that the Brigantes worshipped deities that were later equated with Roman gods. For instance, the horse was a significant symbol in Brigantian culture, which might suggest the worship of a deity akin to Epona, the protector of horses, known from other Celtic regions and embraced by the Romans.
The presence of votive offerings and inscriptions found in the region, such as those at Aldborough, hint at a complex religious life where local deities were revered alongside more widely recognized gods. These local deities would have been deeply connected to the land and its features, such as rivers, hills, and forests, embodying the tribe’s relationship with their environment.
The Brigantes’ religious practices also included the veneration of ancestral spirits and heroes, which was a common feature in Celtic belief systems. These figures would have been honoured through storytelling, ritual feasting, and the erection of standing stones or other monuments.
The lack of direct written records from the Brigantes themselves complicates the task of identifying their deities. However, through the study of place names, archaeological finds, and the writings of Roman historians, scholars have pieced together a tapestry of religious life that suggests a diverse and vibrant pantheon.
Hints of past belief that remain today
The historical continuity of sacred sites from the Iron Age through the Roman period and into the Christian era in Britain is a fascinating subject that reflects the complex layers of religious and cultural evolution. The Iron Age in Britain, which lasted from about 800 BC until the Roman invasion in AD 43, was characterized by various religious practices often centred around natural phenomena and the veneration of a pantheon of deities. These practices were deeply rooted in the landscape, with certain locations holding spiritual significance that likely predates written history.
With the Roman conquest, these sites often became focal points for the imposition of Roman religious structures and deities. The Romans were known for their syncretic approach to religion, readily incorporating and adapting local gods within their own pantheon. This practice facilitated the Romanization of conquered territories, as it allowed for a degree of religious continuity while also establishing Roman cultural dominance. Evidence suggests that many prehistoric religious sites continued to be used during the Roman period, with the addition of Roman architectural styles and iconography.
The process of Christianization in Britain began in the 4th century but gained significant momentum following the mission of St. Augustine to Kent in AD 597. As Christianity spread, it too absorbed elements of the preceding religious traditions. Early Christian missionaries often built churches on sites that were already considered sacred, which may have included former Iron Age and Roman religious sites. This practice helped to ease the transition to Christianity by providing a sense of spiritual continuity, even as the new religion sought to distinguish itself from the old beliefs.
The incorporation of Celtic and Roman iconography into Christian settings is evident in the survival of certain motifs, such as the Green Man and archaic Celtic heads, within church architecture. The Green Man, often depicted as a face surrounded by or made of leaves, is a motif that appears in many cultures and is generally interpreted as a symbol of rebirth and the cyclical nature of life. Its presence in medieval church carvings has been variously interpreted as a representation of the triumph of Christianity over paganism, a symbol of the natural world, or a vestige of earlier religious beliefs that survived within the new Christian context.
Similarly, the use of archaic Celtic heads in church architecture may reflect a continuity of local artistic traditions and the integration of older religious symbols into Christian worship. These heads, which can be stylistically linked to pre-Christian Celtic art, may have served as a means of connecting the community’s ancestral past with its present faith, thus creating a bridge between the old and the new.
In summary, the religious landscape of Britain is a palimpsest, with each successive layer of belief and practice leaving its mark on the physical and spiritual geography of the land. From the Iron Age through the Roman period and into the Christian era, the sacred sites of Britain have evolved, reflecting the dynamic interplay between continuity and change in religious expression. This evolution is a testament to the adaptability of spiritual traditions and the enduring human desire to connect with the divine through the fabric of the familiar world. The incorporation of older religious elements into Christian worship demonstrates the complex and often subtle ways in which religions interact and influence each other over time.
Karl Raimund CELTIC RELIGION – WHAT INFORMATION DO WE REALLY HAVE
